Psychology Terms

Question 1

sport psychology

Answer 1

seek to understand the influence of behavioral processes and cognitions on movement.
Goals:
- measuring psychological phenomena
- investigating the relationships between psychological variables and performance
- applying theoretical knowledge to improve athletic performance

Question 2

task-relevant focus

Answer 2

not wasting attention on task-irrelevant processing such as worrying, catastrophizing, or thinking about other things such as a critical audience or coach

Question 3

efficiency

Answer 3

skilled performance, when actions are fluid and graceful

Question 4

ideal performance state

Answer 4

goal of every athlete, in the zone
characteristics:
- absence of fear, no fear of failure
- no thinking about or analysis of performance (related to the motor stage of automaticity)
- a narrow focus of attention concentrated on the activity itself
- a sense of effortlessness, an involuntary experience
- a sense of personal control
- a distortion of time and space, in which time seems slow
absence of negative self-talk, a strong feeling of efficacy, and an adaptive focus on task-relevant cues

Question 5

energy management

Answer 5

athletes who deplete energy through worry, anger, frustration, or anxiety experience a greater likelihood of distraction and decreased self-confidence, and they have less physical energy for when they really need to perform - must maintain self-control

Question 6

mental energy

Answer 6

generated, maintained, depleted, and refreshed via our emotions

Question 7

emotions

Answer 7

temporary feeling state that occurs in response to events and that have both physiological and psychological components
can be both beneficial and detrimental

Question 8

beneficial emotions

Answer 8

they get us excited, cause us to feel motivated, elevate confidence in ourselves, and reinforce our commitment level

Question 9

detrimental emotions

Answer 9

either too much or too little (performer being too “amped up” or “too flat”) or when we lose control of our emotions and cease to function effectively in a performance environment

Question 10

arousal

Answer 10

a blend of physiological and psychological activation in an individual and refers to the intensity of motivation at any given moment.
always present in an individual to some degree, on a continuum ranging from being deeply asleep, or comatose, to highly excited; but in and of itself it is not automatically associated with pleasant or unpleasant events
measurement index: heart rate, blood pressure, electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), and catecholamine levels, or with self-report instruments such as the activation-deactivation checklist

Question 11

anxiety

Answer 11

subcategory of arousal. negatively perceived emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, or fear and is associated with a physiological activation of the body

Question 12

cognitive anxiety

Answer 12

mental / cognitive component

Question 13

somatic anxiety

Answer 13

physical reaction. evidenced through physical symptoms such as tense muscles, tachycardia (fast HR), and upset stomach.

Question 14

state anxiety

Answer 14

subjective experience of apprehension and uncertainty accompanied by elevated autonomic and voluntary neural outflow and increased endocrine activity. effects on athletic performance can be positive, negative, or indifferent
moment-to-moment changes in feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension associated with arousal of the body

Question 15

trait anxiety

Answer 15

primer for the athlete to experience state anxiety.
a personally variable or disposition relating to the probability that one will perceive an environment as threatening. also affects the appropriate level of arousal for a given individual
an acquired disposition that predisposes a person to perceive a wide range of objectively non dangerous circumstances as threatening and to respond to these with disproportionate state anxiety levels

Question 16

ineffective state anxiety

Answer 16

skeletal muscles are tense, the heart is racing, and negative thoughts intrude
factors present:
- a high degree of ego involvement, in which the athlete may perceive a threat to self-esteem
- a perceived discrepancy between one’s ability and the demands for athletic success
- a fear of the consequences of failure (such as a loss of approval from teammates, coach, family, or peers)

Question 17

stress

Answer 17

substantial imbalance between demand (physical, psychological, or both) and response capability, under conditions in which failure to meet that demand has important consequences

Question 18

stressor

Answer 18

environment or cognitive event that precipitates stress

Question 19

distress

Answer 19

negative stressor

compromises cognitive and somatic anxiety

Question 20

eustress

Answer 20

positive stressor

compromises positive mental energy and physiological arousal

Question 21

drive theory

Answer 21

individual’s arousal or state anxiety increases, so too does performance. true for relatively low levels of arousal to somewhat higher amounts BUT more arousal is not always better, as performers can clearly be too “pumped up” to perform well

when athletes perform well-learned or simple skills, a higher level of arousal can benefit performance.
BUT the more complex a given skill becomes, or the less experience an athlete has with that skill, the more arousal can produce catastrophic performance outcomes.

can be influenced by skill level and/or task complexity

optimal arousal point = lower for less skilled athletes than for more advanced players

coaches should lower arousal and decision making responsibilities of developing or novice athletes, and have them focus on simple assignments to prevent attentional overload

Question 22

inverted-U theory

Answer 22

arousal-performance relationship
arousal facilitates performance up to an optimal level, beyond which further increases in arousal are associated with reduced performance

helps to explain why arousal affects performance and how to gain greater control over the appropriate level of arousal for a given athlete

Question 23

individual zone of optimal functioning

Answer 23

Dr. Hanin looked at individual factors that affect optimal arousal for performance
ie) different people, in different types of performances, perform best with very different levels of arousal

(1) ideal performance does not seem to always occur at the midpoint of the arousal continuum, and (2) rather than there being a single defined arousal point at which optimal performance occurs, this best performance can occur within a small range, or bandwidth, of arousal level

positive and negative emotions can either generate enhanced performance OR debilitate performance

Question 24

catastrophe theory

Answer 24

Hardy assessed the cognitive and somatic dimensions of arousal can sharpen the ability to predict (control) their impact on performance. believe / see that there is more of a dramatic decline in performance after optimal level is reached

somatic arousal has a curvilinear, inverted-U relationship to athletic performance, whereas cognitive anxiety shows a steady negative relationship to performance.
practical implication of this theory is that the arousal constructs need to be more clearly delineated as cognitive anxiety, physiological arousal, somatic anxiety, or some combination of these.

Question 25

reversal theory

Answer 25

Kerr states that it is the way in which arousal and anxiety affect performance depends on the individual's interpretation of that arousal implies that athletes have within their power the ability to reverse their interpretation of their own arousal. controlling not just the amount of arousal but also its significance, whether it is beneficial or detrimental to performance is within the individuals control

Question 26

motivation

Answer 26

intensity and direction of effort

Question 27

intrinsic motivation

Answer 27

the desire to be competent and self-determining athletes are driven because of their love of the game and inherent reward they feel from participation. motivation comes from within the athlete and is exhibited regardless of the existence of material reward or punishment focus on the enjoyment or fun they experience in the activity and generally desire to learn and improve because of this love for the behavior in and of itself athletes continue with the sport because of process or performance goals AND voice in decision making

Question 28

extrinsic motivation

Answer 28

motivation that comes from some external source. motivators are based on an individualized reward construct ex) trophies, awards, praise from coaches and teammates, social approval, and fear of punishment

Question 29

achievement motivation

Answer 29

person's effort to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacle's, and engage in competition or social comparison between two athletes, whoever is higher in achievement motivation will be the better athlete because he or she has a greater appetite for competition

Question 30

motive to achieve success (MAS)

Answer 30

capacity to experience pride in one's accomplishments and is characterized by a desire to challenge oneself and evaluate one's ability MAS-dominated athletes are most intrigued by situations that are either uncertain or challenging, with an approximate 50% probability of success

Question 31

motive to avoid failure (MAF)

Answer 31

desire to protect one's ego and self-esteem. avoiding the perception of shame that accompanies the failure MAF-dominated players are more comfortable in situations in which it is either very easy to achieve success (avoiding shame) or so extremely difficult that there would be no expectation of winning (eliminating likelihood of feeling shame)

Question 32

self-controlled practice

Answer 32

involves athlete in decisions related to the practice structure, including when to receive feedback or which skill to practice, it also involves simply asking athletes how they believe they are doing. promotes more active involvement in the practice session and can enhance feelings of competence and autonomy, results in heightened motivation, performance and learning improvement.

Question 33

positive reinforcement

Answer 33

act of increasing the probability of occurrence of a given behavior by following it with a positive action, object, or event ex) praise, decals on the helmet, or prizes and awards

Question 34

operant

Answer 34

target behavior | ex) correct footwork in basketball

Question 35

negative reinforcement

Answer 35

increases the probability of occurrence of a given operant, but it is accomplished through the removal of an act, object, or event that is typically aversive ex) removal of wind sprints at the end of practice

Question 36

positive punishment

Answer 36

presentation of an act, object, or event following a behavior that could decrease the behavior's occurrence ex) reprimanding a player after a mistake or making an athlete do push-ups or sprints after a fumble

Question 37

negative punishment

Answer 37

removal of something valued | ex) revoking privileges or playing time, as in benching

Question 38

reinforcement

Answer 38

focuses on what the athlete is doing correctly | increases task-relevant focus rather than worry focus

Question 39

punishment

Answer 39

designed to decrease that occurrence of a given operate, negative behaviors or mistakes / lack of effort

Question 40

attention

Answer 40

processing of both environmental and internal cues that come to awareness

Question 41

selective attention

Answer 41

ability to inhibit awareness of some stimuli in order to process others. suppresses task-irrelevant cues in order to process the task-relevant cues in the limited attentional space. "level of focus"

Question 42

routine

Answer 42

adopting a ritual or a mental checklist, that consciously directs thoughts to task-relevant and controllable concerns ex) breathing, checking the turf, and stretching

Question 43

attentional style quadrants

Answer 43

broad external - athlete assesses the situation by looking at the environment and various elements within it broad internal - athlete processes information and develops a strategy narrow internal - athlete mentally rehearses the upcoming action narrow external - athlete specifically focuses on one or two external cues to generate action

Question 44

diaphragmatic breathing

Answer 44

technique for reaching a higher level of physical and mental relaxation. it focuses attention on the process of breathing to clear the mind and therefor increase concentration belly breathing - for of breathing is a basic stress management technique and a precursor to virtually all other mental training technique

Question 45

progressive muscle relaxation

Answer 45

athletes employ PMR to achieve an appropriate level of cognitive and somatic activation before performance technique by which psychological and physical arousal are self-regulated through the control of skeletal muscle tension. going through series of alternating muscular tensing and relaxing phases, the athlete learns to become aware of somatic tension and thereby control it. hope is that a relaxed body will promote a relaxed mind.

Question 46

autogenic training

Answer 46

alternative form of PMR cycle. difference is attentional state that simply focuses on the sense of warmth and heaviness for a particular limb or muscle group consists of a series of exercises designed to produce physical sensations in the body - generally warmth and heaviness it eliminates the need for uncomfortable levels of muscle tension in the contraction-relaxation cycles, older athletes or athletes in rehabilitation from injury may find this an attractive alternative to PMR.

Question 47

systematic desensitization

Answer 47

SD - one technique that helps an athlete initially confront or reduce fear combines mental and physical techniques that allow an athlete to replace a fear response to various cues with a relaxation response

Question 48

counter-conditioning

Answer 48

adaptive, learned replacement process, the principle behind SD like cognitive-affective stress management training (SMT) and stress inoculation training (SIT), systematic desensitization teaches the athlete to use a specific relaxation skill-based coping response to control for cognitive arousal

Question 49

imagery

Answer 49

cognitive skill in which the athlete creates or recreates an experience in his or her mind. for athletes it uses all the senses to create mental experiences of an athletic performance mentally rehearsing a movement, imagining visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and even gustatory (taste) cues.

Question 50

mental imagery

Answer 50

allows the athlete to get used to this certain environment over longer periods of time despite minimal real-world competitive opportunity

Question 51

self-confidence

Answer 51

the belief that one can successfully perform a desired behavior

Question 52

self-efficacy

Answer 52

situationally specific form of self-confidence the perception of one's ability to perform a given task in a specific situation highly self-efficacious does not doubt his or her ability to succeed at a given task, even when failure is experienced

Question 53

person's self efficacy derives

Answer 53

performance accomplishments - past experiences of success or failure vicarious experience - watching others (modeling) verbal persuasion - encouragement from self or others imaginal experience - using imagery to see one-self perform physiological states - perception of arousal as facilitative or debilitative emotional states - affect or mood

Question 54

self-talk

Answer 54

a technique frequently used to enhance self-efficacy, aid in directing proper focus, assist in regulating arousal levels, and reinforce motivation self-talk or interpersonal communication - inner dialogue we have with ourselves, either out loud or in our heads, provides the "sound track' our behaviors and performances

Question 55

positive self-talk

Answer 55

includes utterances or statements that are encouraging (come on!), motivational (I can do this!), or reinforcing (I am ready!) and generally reflects favorable emotions or feelings

Question 56

negative self-talk

Answer 56

reflects anger, discouragement, doubt, or negative judgement (you suck!, you can't do this, what were you thinking?)

Question 57

instructional self-talk

Answer 57

provides specific direction or focus on necessary performance cues for a particular skill or strategy (feet shoulder-width apart, keep your torso erect)

Question 58

goal setting

Answer 58

characterized as a process whereby progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued with a defined criterion of task performance that increases the likelihood of perceived success. those with higher confidence and efficacy generally envision, create, and strive to accomplish more challenging goals

Question 59

process goals

Answer 59

those over whose achievement the athlete has control. they focus on the actions the individual must engage in during performance to execute the skill well. success is strongly contingent on effort

Question 60

outcome goals

Answer 60

ones over which the athlete has little control. in sport generally focus on the competitive result of an event, so earning a medal, scoring points, and generating a high ranking would all fall in this category. winning is the primary goal

Question 61

short-term goal

Answer 61

directly related to current training or competition and are guidelines that can be attained in a relatively short time frame. increase likelihood of success because, although challenging, they are relatively close to the athlete's present ability level. also increase confidence, self-efficacy, and motivation because of likelihood to succeed.

Question 62

long-term goal

Answer 62

overarch the series of linked short-term goals. the attainment of those short-term goals should lead to the accomplishment of the related long-term goals. relevance in everyday practice goals if it is apparent how they help attain the ultimate level of performance.

Question 63

learning-performance distinction

Answer 63

``` learning = process that results in a relatively permanent change in the capability for motor skill performance = execution of the skill in the current environment ```

Question 64

practice

Answer 64

essential for motor skill learning. challenging practice enables motor skill acquisition; mere reps are not enough to change behavior

Question 65

whole practice

Answer 65

addresses the skill in its entirety | whole practice would tend to be favored for a task with subcomponents that are highly interrelated

Question 66

part practice

Answer 66

separates the skill into a series of subcomponents tasks that are challenging but have low interrelatedness of the subcomponents learned better with part practice part practice can inhibit the effective regrouping of the subcomponents

Question 67

segmentation

Answer 67

breaks down the task into a series of subcomponents that have clear breaks between them

Question 68

fractionalization

Answer 68

breaks the tasks into subcomponents that occur simultaneously

Question 69

simplification

Answer 69

adjusts the difficulty of the tasks by changing task characteristics such as the execution speed or the equipment used

Question 70

pure-part training

Answer 70

part-whole method has the athlete practice each subcomponent of the skill multiple times independently. after all components have been practiced, the skill is practiced in its entirety

Question 71

progressive-part training

Answer 71

has the athlete practice the first two parts in isolation before practicing these parts together. the athlete then practices the third subcomponent before practicing all three parts together

Question 72

repetitive part training

Answer 72

has the athlete practice only the first part in isolation; then each subsequent part is added until the whole task is reintegrated

Question 73

random practice

Answer 73

multiple skills are practiced in a random order during a given practice session

Question 74

variable practice

Answer 74

includes variations of the same skill within a single practice session as opposed to specific practice in which a specific skill is repeated multiple times

Question 75

observational practice

Answer 75

action observation practice through observation of the task or skill to be performed, has important implications for motor skill learning, through prerecorded videos or live demonstrations

Question 76

instructions

Answer 76

amount of information / detail athletes are given about a task

Question 77

explicit instruction

Answer 77

prescriptive information that gives the athlete the "rules" for effectively executing the given task

Question 78

guided discovery

Answer 78

provides the athlete with instructions about the overall movement goal and important prompts for task accomplishment without explicitly telling the athlete how to accomplish the task

Question 79

discovery

Answer 79

instructs the athlete on the overarching goal of the task and the athlete receives little to no direction

Question 80

feedback

Answer 80

provide the athlete with information about the movement pattern and the associated goal. this information can then be used to make appropriate adjustments to achieve the desired movement pattern and goal

Question 81

intrinsic feedback

Answer 81

feedback provided to the athlete by the athlete from the senses

Question 82

augmented feedback

Answer 82

feedback provided to the athlete by either an observer, such as a coach, or technology, such as video or lab equipment knowledge of results and knowledge of performance

Question 83

knowledge of results

Answer 83

provides the athlete with information about the execution of the task goal

Question 84

knowledge of performance

Answer 84

provides the athlete with information about his or her movement pattern

Question 85

how should positive and negative reinforcement be applied?

Answer 85

coaches should generally subscribe to a reinforcement strategy to assist athletes in focusing on what they do correct punishment should be used sparingly, as it increases the likelihood that athletes will focus on what they are doing incorrectly under conditions that promote a narrow focus of attention, positive reinforcement aids a focus on task relevant cues, while punishment floods attentional capacity with a predominance of task-irrelevant cues

Question 86

how should athletes use arousal control techniques?

Answer 86

an athlete should employ arousal reduction techniques when performing a new skill or one that is complex, or when performing in high-pressure situation athletes should employ arousal enhancement techniques when executing simple skills, ones that are well learned, or in situations of minimal pressure the purpose of employing such techniques is to allow the athlete to perform with an unburdened mind while matching his or her mental and physical intensity to the demands of the task

Question 87

guidelines for using goal setting

Answer 87

long-term goals and short-term goals are interdependent long-term goals provide a sense of meaningfulness and direction for pursuing short-term goals the attainment of short-term goals provides a hierarchical sense of mastery and success that builds self-confidence athletes should define process goals to focus on elements of their performance over which they have control