Psychology Unit 1 test Flashcards

(111 cards)

1
Q

psychology

A

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

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2
Q

Good Psychology Does NOT

A

allow a person to see into the SOUL of another.
answer the “Big Questions” about life.
fix peoples’ problems
attempt to make people Feel Good

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3
Q

What identifies Bad Psychology?

A

Simple Answers
Giving advice
Makes a celebrity of the psychologist
Overly generalized information
vague or ambiguous terms
attempts to make subject feel good to easily
promises too much
overly generalized use of limited research findings
pseudoscience

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4
Q

What identifies good psychology?

A

ethical
promotes well-being
encourages healthy change
recognizes not all problems can be fixed
recognizes that seemingly unsolvable problems may be resolvable
empowers the subject
recognizes that personal change requires hard work
sensitive to cultural differences
validates perspective, not necessarily actions
operates from a scientifically supported framework

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5
Q

5 pillars of Psychology

A

Biological
Cognitive
Development
Social & Personality
Mental & Physical Health

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6
Q

Things included in the Biological Pillar of Psychology

A

biological psychology
Neurology
Neuroscience
Sensation
Consciousness

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7
Q

Things included in the Cognitive Pillar of Psychology

A

Perception
Thinking
Intelligence
Memory

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8
Q

Things included in the Development Pillar of Psychology

A

Learning and maturing through the stages and processes of Human Lifespan Development.

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9
Q

Things included in the Social & Personality Pillar of Psychology

A

Social Psychology
Personality
Motivation
Emotion

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10
Q

What are the 2 allied areas of the Social & Personality Pillar of Psychology

A

Social Influences
Personalities

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11
Q

Social influences affect on psychology

A

contribute to the way our personalities develop

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12
Q

Personalities affect on psychology

A

guide the social environments we seek out and how we respond within them

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13
Q

Mental & Physical Health Pillar of Psychology

A

absence of pathology
presence of well-being
Psychological Disorders
Psychotherapy
Mental Health Treatments
Stress
Lifestyle influences

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14
Q

BioPsychoSocial Model

A

Medical Model which recognizes that there is greater complexity to a person’s apparent symptoms. Biology, Psychology, and Social elements all contribute to causes and outcomes.

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15
Q

SEQUENCE of GOALS in RESEARCH:

A

Describe
Explain
Predict
Modify

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16
Q

Describe

A

Tell precisely what is observed. No Interpretation, no judgment, no predictions

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17
Q

Explain

A

Why does the behavior occur (or not occur)?

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18
Q

Predict

A

Under what conditions does it happen (or not happen)?

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19
Q

Modify

A

Alter the behavior. Make it happen or prevent it.

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20
Q

STEPS in the EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PROCESS

A
  1. Notice a Phenomenon and ask a Question about it.
  2. Formulate the Hypothesis
  3. Explore the scholarly and scientific literature
  4. Design a Study
  5. Conduct the study and collect data
  6. Analyze the Data
  7. Report the Results
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21
Q

Anecdote

A

an interesting story; may lead us to ask questions and then identify interesting and useful directions for research.

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22
Q

Types of Studies

A

Survey, Psychological Test, Experiment, Correlation, Naturalistic Observation, Case Study

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23
Q

Operational Definitions

A

A precise, measurable definition for a term used in the study

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24
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Help to summarize data with measures such as Mean, Median, Mode, Range, Coefficient of Correlation, Percentages, etc.

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25
Inferential Statistics
Help us to determine whether, and how strongly, our results are not predicted by chance
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Proof
a piece of affirming evidence for something
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prove
all possible data affirms
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Replication
repeating studies to demonstrate that the findings were reliable
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Variations
test the same hypothesis with different operational methods to see that we can generalize the findings to different contexts
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Reliability
the measure will come out the same way when measured under varied circumstances and across time.
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Validity
the test actually measures what we say it measures
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Experiment
reveals cause-and-effect relationships
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Correlation
identifies the strength and direction in which two variables shift together
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Field Observation
naturalistic observation; observing subjects in their natural environment, without them knowing they are being observed
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Laboratory observation
controlled observation; brings subjects into a lab and puts them in a situation to observe how they respond
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(Psychological) Test
conduct standardized assessments to identify a trait, property, or characteristic (i.e. IQ test)
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Case (Study)
looking at a particular individual or situation
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Survey
ask people for their opinion, experience, etc.
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Survey strengths
Lots of info Minimal cost and effort
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Survey weaknesses
Requires quality selection of respondents for the best representation Requires quality wording to avoid leading options No guarantee of full demographic participation Subjects may lie, fail to recall, or give low effort answers Requires avoiding the temptation to assemble amateur surveys to save money Bad surveys provides no greater information than guesswork but adds the risk of feeling that inaccurate information is justified due to having run the survey
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Field observation strengths
Behavior “in the wild” Objective observation of what subjects actually do in their own environment
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Field observation weaknesses
Hawthorne Effect High time and monetary expense involved in being in the right location at the right time to observe the actual behavior Time, place, and angle of observers can limit what they KNOW absolutely
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Hawthorne Effect
when subjects change behavior due to knowledge of being watched
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Case study strengths
Personal and insightful
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Case study weaknesses
Do not generalize Cuts out influential social/cultural/historical context
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Test Strengths
High quantity of information gained very quickly Reliable and valid
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Test Weaknesses
Abstract concepts are complex and require interpretation Easy to construct badly Standardization and validation can be time consuming and expensive Must be performed under strict standard conditions to be valid Tests may inadvertently measure the wrong thing
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Correlation strengths
Quick to run once raw data is available Quick to determine the apparent relationship between variables
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Correlation weaknesses
Does not show causation Relationship does not identify possible third factors/variables
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Experiment strengths
Only method that can show cause and effect relationships
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Experiment Weaknesses
can be time consuming and proceed very slowly
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Laboratory Observation Strengths
Greater control over observation conditions Researchers can provide settings that are conducive to the type of behavior they want to observe
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Laboratory Observation Weaknesses
Hawthorne effect changes how subjects behave when they know they are being observed
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Independent Variable (IV)
the cause; the experiment manipulates this to see what effect it will have on the dependent variable
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Dependent Variable
the effect or outcome; caused by the independent variable
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Confounding variable
anything which the experimenters can’t anticipate or control for that might influence the results
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2 fundamental forms of learning
classical (Pavlovian) instrumental (operant)
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Classical conditioning
when one associates a stimulus (e.g., a symbol for vacation, like a big beach towel) with an emotional event (like a burst of happiness)
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2 reasons for studying Classical conditioning
1. straightforward test of associative learning that can be used to study other, more complex behaviors 2. always occurring in our lives; its effects on behavior have important implications for understanding normal and disordered behavior in humans
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unconditioned stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs
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Unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.
62
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned response (CR)
The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.
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Instrumental conditioning
Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviors and their consequences
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Reinforcer
Any consequence of a behavior that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed it again.
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Law of effect
The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects.
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Punisher
A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behavior when it is made a consequence of the behavior.
68
Taste aversion learning
The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.
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Fear conditioning
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear.
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Conditioned compensatory response
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response.
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Blocking
In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials
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Prediction error
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising)
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Preparedness
The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association
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Extinction
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning)
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Spontaneous recovery
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction.
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Renewal effect
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction
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Context
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs
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Stimulus control
When an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it
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Discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
80
Categorize
To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.
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Quantitative law of effect
A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviors. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.
82
Reinforcer devaluation effect
The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable
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Goal-directed behavior
Instrumental behavior influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect
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Observational learning
Learning by observing the behavior of others.
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Social Learning Theory
The theory that people can learn new responses and behaviors by observing the behavior of others.
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Social models
Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviors
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Vicarious reinforcement
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person
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Response
behavior caused by or chosen according to some antecedent, situation, expectation, or other force acting upon the person (or organism) which then responds to that antecedent
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Antecedents
triggers that provide a stimulus to begin a behavior.
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Reinforcement
Increases the Likelihood of repeating the behavior. Any consequence that makes the behavior more likely to occur in the future. (may be weak or strong)
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Punishment
Decreases the Likelihood of repeating the behavior. Any consequence that makes the behavior less likely to occur in the future. (It may be weak or strong)
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Positive Consequence
Applying, adding, providing, or doing something to the learner so the learner gains something. It may be something desired or something unwanted. Gaining pain or pleasure still involves gaining something.
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Negative Consequence
Subtracting, Removal or Deprivation of something from the learner. may be something desired or something unwanted. Losing pain or pleasure still involves losing something.
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Positive Reinforcement
(Reward) Add something that is liked, this increases likelihood of repeating the behavior.
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Negative Reinforcement
(Escape / Avoidance) Remove something that is not liked, this increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior.
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Escape
when you already have a bad situation, and you engage in a behavior to end the pain or trouble
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Avoid
when you act to prevent getting into a bad situation
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Positive Punishment
(Aversion) Add something that is disliked, this decreases likelihood of repeating the behavior.
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Negative Punishment
(Cost / Fine) Remove something, this decreases likelihood of repeating the behavior.
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Salience of particular consequences
what is forefront in the mind at the time
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Problems with Punishments
- Ethically Questionable - inconsistent - Ventilation of Emotions - revenge - Doesn’t outweigh emotions - Not Immediate - Temporary effects - Response of fear, anxiety, or rage - Punishing agent is seen as reason for good behavior - Teaches sneakiness - Models aggression as problem solving strategy - Inadvertantly causes reinforcements - Doesn’t teach what TO DO, only what not to do - Teaches conformity and not morality; teaches fear and not respect
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How to use extinction
1. identify reinforcers 2. stop reinforcers 3. provide reinforcements for Replacement Behavior 4. Beware, behavior will EXAGGERATE and INTENSIFY, then diminish and disappear
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Shaping
positively reinforcing actions that bring the subject closer to the intended outcome
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Appearance
surface structure
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Decoding
reading, identifying what the item means
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Classifying
identifying what classes something belongs to
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Applying
using the information by making it work in an example
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Synthesis
integrating information and ideas from various previously unrelated sources
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Origination
creating new information or ways of understanding, explaining, or developing
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3-Component process of Memory
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
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Reasons for “bad memory"
Fail to actually learn Bad organization of memories Encounter interfering info