Psychology Units 3 & 4 Flashcards

Question

-> for classical conditioning -recall the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), neutral stimulus (NS), conditioned stimulus (CS) and conditioned response (CR) -distinguish between stimulus generalisation and discrimination - describe extinction and spontaneous recovery -describe learned fear responses (John Watson — the ‘Little Albert’ experiment) (Watson & Rayner 1920)

Answer 1

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's Dogs). Before conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus (dog food) Unconditioned Response (dog salivating) Neutral stimulus (bell) Association: UCR (involuntary) and NS are associated through repeated pairing (dog salivates in response to dog food and bell is rung). After conditioning: The NS has become a conditioned stimulus which elicits the conditioned response (ringing the bell causes the dog to salivate). stimulus generalisation- an organism responds to any stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus. eg. sound similar stimulus discrimination- when an organism responds to the CS but not to any stimulus that is similar. eg. dog salivates at bell ringing but not a buzzer. extinction- the response is extinct after being shown several times without UCS. spontaneous recovery- the reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period Learned fear responses- Little Albert cried when rat appeared as a hammer was banged behind his head numerous times when the rat was present. Cause Little Albert to develop a fear of anything white and fluffy (stimulus generalisation) Experiment was highly unethical: - cause harm to participant -no consent or permission from parents given - no debrief

Answer 2

Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner's Rats & Piegons) Three-phase model (ABC of operant conditioning): the Antecedent (the environment) that makes the conditions right for the Behaviour to follow and be reinforced (or extinguished) by its Consequences. Reinforcement: + giving pigeon seed when pecking button (application of pleasant stimulus) - electric grid is removed when button is pecked (removal of unpleasant stimulus) Punishment: + being nagged (application of an unpleasant stimulus) - toy confiscated (removal of a pleasant stimulus) stimulus generalisation- when a behaviour is displayed because of a discriminative stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus discrimination- when a behaviour stops being applied to similar situations and only to the discriminative stimulus. extinction- when the conditioned response disappears over time after reinforcement has ceased. spontaneous recovery- shows that extinction of a behaviour is not ‘unlearning’.

Answer 3

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura- BOBO doll) Children watched adults be aggressive with the Bobo doll, then when placed in a room alone, they replicated those actions. Theory (just Bandura) Steps: 1. attention (attention to the role model) 2. retention (mental representation of the behaviour) 3. reproduction (representation turns into an action) 4. reinforcement (action is performed and given feedback) 5. motivation (rewarded or punished for the action and is motivated to continue or not) modelling-> when a person copies the behaviour or attitude demonstrated by another person. vicarious conditions-> Positive consequences received by the model increase the likelihood of the observer imitating the model’s behaviour (vice versa).

Answer 4

Status-> the relative standing of a person within a social or professional group. Power-> the ability to influence or control the thoughts, feelings or behaviours of others. Stanford Prison experiment: people readily complied with social roles expected to play (power and social status in groups) Guards became aggressive and harassed prisoners Prisoners experienced mental breakdowns (one prisoner was so traumatised the experiment was terminated after 6 days). Strengths: supports the situational explanation of behaviour. Improved prison conditions in the USA Limitations: participants were “just acting” (low ecological validity) and low population validity (only male students).

Answer 5

Primary-> begins at birth and is carried out by family. Strong motivation for changing behaviours as child learns rules and expectations Secondary->occurs later as friends and peers become increasingly important. Conform and learn to operate in groups to be accepted.

Answer 6

Gender-> "the psychological meaning of being male or female, which is influenced by learning" Social learning-> children learn about gender roles from the observation of others in their environment. Differing consequences are applied to individuals based on their gender which further influences their behaviour. Gender identity is formed by these shared behaviours. Cognitive Developmental theories of gender role formation -> gender develops as part of normal cognitive development and gender roles are a consequence of this. Three stages: 1. gender identity- the person learns what gender they are (ages 2-3) 2. gender stability- the person learns their gender will not change over time (ages 3-4) 3. learns that superficial changes in appearance or activities doesn't change a person's gender (age 5) Biological theories of gender role formation-> overarching theory that an individual’s gender is predetermined by their biological sex: their genitals and reproductive organs. Evolutionary wise:gender roles is that natural selection required males and females to possess different biological and psychological traits to increase reproduction, and survival of human race. evolutionary explanation for gender roles is that natural selection required males and females to possess different biological and psychological traits to increase human reproduction, and continue the survival of the human race.

Answer 7

Social influence-> attitudes and beliefs of someone and their behaviours are influenced by the people they associate themselves with. Compliance-> A change is people's attitudes publicly so that they are more likeable in their group. Agree with accepting attitudes rather their own personal beliefs, Identification-> change is person's attitudes and beliefs because they are influenced or are aware of how it impacts a relationship they have with a person or group. Internalisation-> When a belief or attitude is accepted by a person and their behaviour reflects this.

Answer 8

Obedience-> the commands of someone in authority or the rules or laws of a society are followed. factors effecting: - social proximity decreased obedience - legitimacy of the authority figure - group pressure Conformity-> occurs when a person adjusts their thoughts, emotions or behaviours to agree with an individual or a group. factors effecting: - unanimity (whether or not a group is animous - in full agreement with each-other) - group size - social loafing (not putting in effort and relying on the group to answer) - informational influence - normative influence - individualist culture (one believes there individual goals are more important) - collectivist culture (the group's goals are more important than individual) Social norms-> an individuals expectations of how others expect them to behave or how others will behave in any given social situation. descriptive: behaviours that are commonly put into practice. injective: behaviours that are commonly approved or disapproved of. Calidini-> Calidini (petrified wood) Injunctive normation information (do not remove wood) - is more likely to reduce theft, and descriptive norm information- is more likely to increase theft (many past visitors have removed the wood from the park, change the state of the forest). Strengths: population validity (large sample size) and ecological validity (in a natural setting) Limitations: difficult to establish the cause/effect of uncontrolled variables

Answer 9

Milgram- (obedience) All participants obeyed up to 300 volts, 65% up to 450 volts Situational factors are strong influences on human behaviours and humans make incorrect dispositional attributions about the behaviour Strength: control of variables- believed they were randomly assigned, giving shocks and roles were authentic- increases internal validity Limitations: unethical, deception, stress, population and ecological validity (all white males, in the laboratory) ethical problems: - withdrawal rights not made clear - deception involved Asch (lines-wrong answer chosen)-> Asch (effects of group pressure among judgements) ⅓ participants conformed to the clearly incorrect majority 75% confirmed at least once and 25% never conformed In the control group (no pressure) less than 1% gave a wrong answer Concluded that people will conform to fit in with the group (normative social influence) because they believe the group is better informed (informational influence) Strength: replicable Limitations: ecological validity, deception

Answer 10

A 3 stage process that a bystander needs to goes through to help in a given situation. At each stage a bystander can fail to progress to the next and therefore not engage in pro social behaviour: - noticing the situation (less likely if in a group) - interpreting the situation as requiring help (less likely if the situation is not clear) - taking responsibility for the situation (less likely if there are more people around) The bystander effect: more people are present= the less likely someone will act and is explained by: - diffusion of responsibility - social influence - audience inhibition Strength: high ecological validity Limitation: population validity (uneven # of male/ female students)

Answer 11

Prosocial behaviour: intentionally helping others. reciprocity-> if someone helps you, then you should help them in a similar situation. perceived capability of helping is roughly equal. Social responsibility-> we should help people who need help because that is our social responsibility.

Answer 12

Empathy-> if empathising with the person (situation or similarity), more likely to help. mood-> good mood-> more inclined to help thus increasing possibility of engaging in PSB. competence-> more likely to help if they are competent in doing so. altruism-> helps due to selfless concern for others.

Answer 13

Groupthink-> occurs when members of a group try to unanimous (not in full agreement) and this overrides motivation to consider other alternatives. Diffusion of responsibility-> when each member of a group think that someone else should or will take responsibility for helping. Audience Inhibition-> the presence of others reduces the likelihood that someone will take responsibility for helping. fear of being judges by others. Social Influence-> if other people do not interpret the situation as help being required, someone is less likely to interpret the situation as needing to give help. Cost-Benefit Analysis-> the pros and cons of an action is considered. costs are lower than the benefits, someone is more likely to help.

Answer 14

Aggression is defined as behaviour thats intend to harm a target. In the model, two types of processes are considered; proximate (explain individual episodes) & distal processes (operate in the background of each episode). Proximate: 1. Input - risk factors (increases likelihood of aggression) & protective factors (reduce the likelihood of aggression) 2. Routes- Affect (how input variables influence moods and emotions), Cognition (how input influences aggressive thoughts) & Arousal (how variable input influence psychological and physiological arousal). 3. Outcomes- how an individual appraises the situation, decides and then acts. Distal: Biological eg. low serotonin & environmental factors eg. victimisation

Answer 15

Advertising can desensitise aggressive behaviours, therefore making aggression more socially acceptable. Video games that are highly realistic, e.g. that involve killing people, blood and wounds, and various weapons, are believed to desensitise people to the effects of aggressive behaviours. The explosion of internet trolls and their aggressive comments on social media has led to a desensitisation to these types of comments, normalising aggressive behaviour.

Answer 16

-Genetics- > natural selection (survival fo the fittest) - Youth and physical attractiveness (fertility and passing of good genes) -Chasity Buss (international preferences on selecting mates) There were very few differences in mate characteristics, showing these to be universally important in mate selection. Strength: large sample size Limitation: no real cause-effect can be established.

Answer 17

Proximity- the more exposed to a stimulus = the more you develop a positive attitude towards them Reciprocity- you are more attracted to people you think are attracted to them. Similarity- interactions with people similar to you, you are likely to reinforce shared attitudes and perspectives therefore increasing attractiveness.

Answer 18

Dissolution: Intrapsychic stage-> unsatisfied with the relationship Dyadic-> discuss/argue about it with partner Social-> Plan their exit & how they will tell their social circles. Grave dressing -> getting over it Resurrection stage -> ready for someone new

Answer 19

Implicit-> involuntarily formed, unconscious and difficult to self-report Explicit-> deliberately formed, conscious & difficult to self-report.

Answer 20

According to Leon Festinger (1957), cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant psychological tension that comes when we perceive that our attitudes are inconsistent with our behaviour. People experience cognitive dissonance when they behave in a way that contradicts their attitude. eg. dislike untruthfulness but might find yourself in a situation where you have to tell a white lie to your friend. $1.00 group rated the task more enjoyable than $20.00 and control groups. Thus these results are as predicted – there was less pressure to comply for the $1.00 group to rate the experience as pleasurable, so even thought it was contrary to their private opinion, they were more likely to change their opinion to correspond with their behaviour. Strength: Controlled variables to determine cause and effect

Answer 21

Social categorisation- we apply different social norms to different groups, including groups we are a part of. Social identification- people categorise themselves into a particular group and are likely to conform to the group and its social norms. Social comparison- people exam similarities and differences between groups. people ar likely to focus on the positive characteristics of their group compared to others. In- group members have positive views of each other, and give each member preferential treatment. An out-group consists of anyone who does not belong to your group. Out-groups are viewed more negatively, and receive inferior treatment in comparison to that of in-group members.

Answer 22

*Ross This research provides empirical support for the fundamental attribution error because it clearly gave the opportunity to demonstrate attributional biases — the questioners made up their own questions, and this was known by all participants. Attributions- concluding the reasoning for a particular behaviour eg. someone shouting on the bus, you assume they are just an angry person. Situational attributions: behaviour is due to environmental factors. eg. your friend's late to work because of traffic. Dispositional attributions: behaviour is due to innate factors specific to that person. e.g. someone is late to your party because of their lack of self-discipline. Fundamental Attribution Error: Dispositional attributions are more likely to be drawn upon than situational of others.

Answer 23

Self-serving bias-> overestimates the impact of innate factors on satisfying outcomes and situational factors for unsatisfying outcomes. confirmation bias -> the tendency to search, remember, interpret or favour information that is consistent with pre-existing beliefs and predictions.

Answer 24

stereotypes: a collection of beliefs held about members belonging to a particular group regardless of individual differences between members. cognitive (thoughts, ideas, or beliefs), affective (negative or positive emotions), and behavioral (overt actions and responses)

Answer 25

scape goating-> blaming a person or a group for the actions of others or for conditions not of their making. Direct experience-> prejudice can be formed through direct experience with members of the targeted group. Personal-> to protect self- interest. group-> develops from conforming to prejudiced group attitudes. prejudiced personality-> personalities considered to be more prejudice are ones in high authoritarian and soical dominance orientation- refers to preference for hierarchal intergroup interactions.

Answer 26

Prejudice->having an ATTITUDE towards group members based only on their membership in that group. Discrimination-> a BEHAVIOUR directed toward a group and its members based on their membership in their group.

Answer 27

sexism- often informed by gender roles with people penalised for against those expectations. ageism- on the basis of age.

Answer 28

* McMillian (sense of community) membership-> boundaries provide emotional safety & develop closer connections to others. influence-> stronger influence from the community is correlated with more cohesive communities which lead to strong sense of community. Integration & fulfilment of needs-> Shared values allow groups to prioritise actions members find most rewarding and their needs are fulfilled. Shared emotional needs-> the more important shared events are to members, the more likely the community is to bond.

Answer 29

All the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that are passed down from generation to generation

Answer 30

Pluralism-> smaller groups are integrated into a dominant group and retain own cultural identity, beliefs, behaviours and values as long as those do not conflict with the majority. Multiculturalism-> many cultures which retain their distinct identities, however there is no dominant culture.

Answer 31

culture shock-> negative emotions and can result in people socially withdrawing and having reduced self esteem. acculturation-> consistent first hand contact with an unfamiliar culture, often results in changes in mental wellbeing and the stress associated. assimilation-> adapts to a new culture and looses their previous one.

Answer 32

racism- discrimination or prejudice based on race. implicit-> racist without being consciously aware that this is what they are doing. explicit-> person is consciously aware of their racism.

Answer 33

intergroup-> more intergroup contact leads us to learn more about people from other groups and we identify with them more sustained contact-> repeated interactions lead us to open trust, & reduces out-group homogeneity, see them more as an individual than the group they belong to. superordinate-> people are inclined to learn more about members of the other group and increase intergroup contact. stereotypes dispelled & reduced bias. mutual interdependence-> groups rely on each-other & increases motivation to learn about those part of different groups. equality (equal status contact)-> when groups interact it is important that these interactions are on the bases of equal status contact.

Answer 34

Experiment 2 – 60 participants primary with elderly stereotype or neutral words while completing a test. After test – participants timed as they walked down a corridor Results: Participants who had been primed with elderly stereotypes had statistically slower walking speed compared to participants in neutral condition Strength: social behaviour can be influenced by priming using stereotypes (reliability & validity) Limitation: small sample, in lab

Answer 35

Grant et al - dependent memory Concluded that matching conditions and environmental context are important in retrieving new memories. Strength: high ecological validity, variability in age sample Limitation: small sample size (affects population validity)

Psychology Units 3 & 4 Flashcards

(59 cards)