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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality?

A

When an individual has a less common characteristic to the rest of the population based on statistical testing. This means they can be defined as abnormal.

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2
Q

What is an example of statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality?

A

Statistical infrequency can be most reliable with characteristics that are easily tested like intelligence. The IQ test shows that most with cluster around the average and the further away from the average the less likely people will be to get that score.

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3
Q

What is a strength of statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality?

A

Usefulness, used in clinical practices. IQ test is needed to diagnose intellectual disabilities. Show that the value of the statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic processes.

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4
Q

What is a limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition for abnormality?

A

Infrequent characteristics can be postitive as well as negative. For example having an a low score on the depression scale is not seen as abnormal while having a high score would be. Therefore just basing abnormality on statistical infrequency is not sufficient at defining abnormality.

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5
Q

What is deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality?

A

When a persons behaviour differs from the societal expectations and norms. This can vary from culture to culture as each will have different norms.

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6
Q

What is an example of deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality?

A

A person with psychopathy is aggressive and impulsive. Psychopaths don’t conform to moral standards and would therefore be considered abnormal in a wide range of cultures.

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7
Q

What is a strength of deviation from social norms as an explanation for abnormality?

A

Used in clinical practice, for example it is used in diagnosing psychopathy as symptoms such as aggression, recklessness and deceitfulness are all deviations from social norms. This shows that the social norms criterion has value in psychiatry.

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8
Q

What is a limitation of deviation from social norms as an explanation for abnormality?

A

Variability between different cultures and situations. A person from one culture may label someone from another culture as abnormal using their standards rather than the persons standards which may create mislabeling. Means it is difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situations and cultures.

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9
Q

What is failure to function adequately as a definition for abnormality?

A

When someone can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life. Such as lack of hygiene and nutrition.

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10
Q

What signs of failing to function adequately did Rosehan and Seligman propose?

A

-No longer conforming to interpersonal rules
-Experiences severe personal distress
-Irrational or dangerous behaviour

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11
Q

What is a strength of using failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?

A

Represents a threshold for when most of us need professional help. Many people have symotoms of metal health disorders but are able to push through. It is when we can no longer function that we need help. Therefore this criterion means help and treatment can be targeted to those who need it most.

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12
Q

What is a limitation of using failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?

A

Easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal. Can be hard to determine between people choosing to deviate or failing to function. Means that people who make unusual choices are at risk of being labeled abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted.

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13
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality?

A

Occurs when someone does not meet a criteria for ideal mental health.

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14
Q

What did Jahoda suggest was the criteria for ideal mental health? -4 Points

A

-We can self actualise
-We can successfully work and enjoy leisure
-We have good self esteem
-We can cope with stress

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15
Q

What is a strength of ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality?

A

It is highly comprehensive, wide ranging criteria means that their can be multiple ways to look at reasons why we may need to seek help.
Means it provides a checklist where we can assess ourselves and others and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals.

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16
Q

What is a limitation for ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality?

A

Different elements are not equally applicable across cultures. Some of the criteria are firmly located in western view. Self actualisation would be viewed as indulgent in most of the world. Difficult to apply the concept from one culture to another.

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17
Q

What is a phobia?

A

Excessive fear or anxiety triggered by an object place or situation.

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18
Q

What are the three DSM categories of phobia and what does each mean?

A

1.Specific Phobia- Phobia of an object or situation
2. Social anxiety- Phobia of social situations such as public speaking or using a public toilet
3. Agoraphobia- Phobia of being outside or in a public place

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19
Q

What are the three behavioural characteristics of phobias and what do they each involve?

A
  1. Panic- May panic in response to the phobic stimulus. May involve crying screaming or running away.
  2. Avoidance- Unless the person is making. conscious effort to face their fear they tend to go to a lot of effort to avoid it.
  3. Endurance- When a person chooses to stay in the presence of a phobic stimulus.
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20
Q

What are the three emotional characteristics of phobias and what do they each involve?

A
  1. Anxiety- Classed as anxiety disorders and involve an emotional response of anxiety. Prevents a person relaxing.
  2. Fear- The immediate and unpleasant response when we encounter a phobic stimulus more intense but shorter than anxiety.
  3. Unreasonable emotional response- Anxiety or fear is much greater than is normal and disproportionate to any threat posed.
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21
Q

What are the three cognitive characteristics of phobias and what do they each involve?

A
  1. Selective attention to the phobic stimulus- Keeps attention on the perceived threat which will increase our chance of reacting quickly but is un helpful when the fear is irrational.
  2. Irrational beliefs- A person with a phobia may hold unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli which can’t be explained and have no basis in reality.
  3. Cognitive distortions- Perceptions may be inaccurate and unrealistic.
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22
Q

What are the four DSM categories of depression?

A

-Major depressive disorder
-Persistent depressive disorder
-Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
-Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

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23
Q

What are the three behavioural characteristics of depression and what do they each involve?

A
  1. Activity levels- People with depression have reduced levels of energy and this makes them lethargic.
  2. Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour- Associated with changes to sleeping behaviour May experience reduced sleep or increased need for sleep- similar with food.
  3. Aggression and self harm- Can become verbally or physically aggressive. Can also be aggressive against themselves.
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24
Q

What are the three emotional characteristics of depression and what do they each involve?

A
  1. Lowered mood- Means feeling sad but many people with depression describe feeling worthless or empty.
  2. Anger- Tend to experience more negative emotions and fewer positive ones during episodes of depression. This anger can be directed at self or others.
  3. Lower self esteem- People with depression tend to like themselves less than usual some experience a sense of self loathing.
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25
What are the three cognitive characteristics of depression and what do they each involve?
1. Poor concentration- Person may struggle to stick to tasks as they usually would or find it hard to make decisions they would usually find straightforward. 2. Dwelling on the negative- pay more attention to the negative situation and ignoring the positive. 3. Absolutist thinking- Think that situations are either all good or all bad.
26
What is OCD as defined by the DSM?
A condition characterised by obsessive and compulsive behaviour. Most with OCD with have both obsessions (cognitive) and compulsions (behavioural).
27
What are the three behavioural characteristics of OCD and what do they each involve?
1. Compulsions are repetitive- People with OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour. 2. Compulsions reduce anxiety- Around 10% of people show compulsive behaviour alone but the vast majority compulsions are formed to reduce anxiety around obsessions. 3. Avoidance- Behaviour may be characterised by keeping away from situations that trigger anxiety.
28
What are the three emotional characteristics of OCD and what do they each involve?
1. Anxiety and distress- Regarded as particularly unpleasant emotional experience because of the powerful anxiety that accompanies obsessions and compulsions. 2. Accompanying depression- Anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment. 3. Guilt and disgust- OCD sometimes involves other negative emotions such as irrational guilt over minor moral issues.
29
What are the three cognitive characteristics of OCD and what do they each involve?
1. Obsessive thoughts- For around 90% of people with OCD the major cognitive feature of conditions is obsessive thoughts. 2. Cognitive coping strategies- Adapted to deal with obsessions. Helps to manage anxiety but may make someone seem abnormal. 3. Insight into excessive anxiety- People with OCD are aware their obsessions and compulsions are not rational. People will think catastrophic thoughts of the worst case scenario that might result if their anxiety were justified.
30
What is the two process model to explaining phobias?
The behaviourist model to explaining phobias consists of acquiring the phobia by classical conditioning and maintaining the phobia by operant conditioning.
31
What is in the acquiring section of the two process model to explaining phobias?
When we learn to associate a neural stimulus with something that already causes fear- an unconditioned stimulus.
32
What was the process of Watsons Little Albert study?
Gave 9 month old little Albert a white rat to play with. Started to make a loud bang every time he was shown the rat. Albert was then seen to be scared of white fluffy items.
33
What were the findings of the little Albert study?
That an neutral stimulus can be turned into a conditioned stimulus in the context of phobias.
34
How are phobias maintained according to the two process model?
By operant conditioning. By avoiding the phobic stimulus you are negatively reenforcing and have a positive consequence meaning that the phobia will be maintained.
35
What is one strength of the two process model? -Refer to real world application
Can be used in exposure therapies. Once avoidance is prevented it forces you to face your fear. Therefore the model identifies a means to treat phobias.
36
What is one limitation of the two process model?
It does not account for the cognitive processes of phobias. It is geared towards explaining behaviour and not enough about explaining the cognitive process. This means that it is only a partial explanation.
37
What is another strength of the two process model?- refer to traumatic experiences. & counterpoint.
It explains a link between traumatic experience and phobias. Little Albert shows how a fighting experience can lead to the formation of phobias. However not all frightening experiences lead to phobias.
38
What is a study that supports the link between phobias and traumatic experiences?
De Jongh found 73% of people who feared the dentist had a traumatic experience with it as apposed to a control group where only 21% had experienced a traumatic event.
39
What is systematic desensitisation as used for treating phobias?
It is a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning. Called counterconditioning as a new response to the phobic stimulus is learnt.
40
What are the three processes used in systematic desensitisation and what do they involve?
1.The anxiety hierarchy- Order the situations which cause them the most anxiety surrounding the phobia. 2. Relaxation- Therapist teaches the client to relax as deeply as possible using breathing exercises and other techniques. 3. Exposure- Client is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state starting from the bottom of the hierarchy and moving up.
41
What is one strength of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias? - Effectiveness.
-One strength is that there is evidence to support it is effective -Study showed that the 42 people who had SD therapy where better after 3 and 33 weeks than a control group - Means it is likely to be helpful for people with phobias.
42
What is one strength of systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias?- Learning disability
-Can be used to treat people with learning disabilities. -People with learning disabilities often struggle with cognitive therapies which require rational thought. -SD most appropriate treatment for the with learning difficulties.
43
What is flooding as a treatment for phobias?
Flooding involves immediate exposure to a frightening situation by facing a phobic stimulus for an extended period of time in order to reduce anxiety surrounding it.
44
How does flooding work as a treatment for phobias?
By removing the option of avoidance the client learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless and therefore the learned response to the stimulus is extinguished.
45
What is one strength of flooding as a treatment for phobias?
-Cost effective -It is clinically effective and cheap as it can work in just one session -Means that more people can be treated at the same cost as SD
46
What is one limitation of flooding as a treatment for phobias?
-Highly unpleasant experience -Provokes tremendous anxiety. Raises ethical issues as psychologists are knowingly subjecting clients to stress. -Suggests therapists may avoid using this treatment.
47
What is Becks negative triad?
A cognitive explanation for depression which consists of three parts which explain why a person becomes depressed.
48
How does faulty information processing explain depression?
When depressed people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives.
49
How does a negative self schema explain depression?
Because a schema is a package of ideas gained through experience so if we have a negative self scheme awe can only view ourselves negatively as well as anything in the world that is associated with us.
50
What are the three branches of Becks negative triad and what do they mean?
1. Negative view of self- low self esteem 2. Negative view of the world- Creates the impression there is no hope anywhere 3. Negative view of the future- Reduces hopefulness and enhances depression.
51
What is a strength of Becks negative triad referring to research support?
-Existence of supporting research -traits of the negative triad where found to more common in depressed people and also to precede depression by Beck an Clark in 1999 -Shows an association between cognitive vulnerability and depression.
52
What is a strength of Becks negative triad referring to real world application?
-Has application in screening and treating depression -assessing cognitive vulnerability allows for screening in young people that can identify those at risk of depression early. -Means it s useful in clinical practice
53
What is Ellis's ABC model of depression ?
A cognitive explanation for depression that suggests it occurs due to irrational thoughts and splits the process into three sections.
54
What are the three aspects of Becks ABC model and what do they mean?
A. Activating event- Get depressed when experiencing negative event which triggers irrational thoughts. B. Beliefs- Identified a range of irrational beliefs. eg 'musturbation' is the belief that we must always be perfect. C. Consequences- When an activating events triggers beliefs there will be negative consequences which can trigger depression.
55
What is one strength of Ellis's ABC model of depression?
-Real world application in the treatment of depression -created Rational emotive behaviour therapy which consists of the therapist challenging the clients irrational beliefs. Some support to suggest that this works. - Means RETB has real world value
56
What is one limitation of Ellis's ABC model of depression?
-Only explains reactive depression and not endogenous depression. -Many cases of depression not traced to life events and ABC model does not explain this. -Means it is only a partial explanation as it does not explain all cases of depression.
57
What is cognitive behaviour therapy?
The most commonly used psychological treatment for depression and is an example of the cognitive approach to treatment.
58
What is the cognitive element of CBT?
Begins with an assessment to decide the clients problems and then a plan is put in place so the client can reach goals they have identified with the therapist.
59
What is the behaviour element of CBT?
Involves working to change the negative and irrational thoughts and put more effective behaviours into place.
60
What is the idea behind becks cognitive therapy?
To identify thoughts from the negative triad and challenge them. Also to help clients test the reality of their beliefs.
61
What is "the clients is scientist" in becks cognitive therapy?
Clients gather evidence of times they have enjoyed things so that the therapist can produce this when the deny they ever like anything.
62
What is ellis's rational emotive behaviour therapy?
Extends the ABC model to ABCDE adding dispute and effect. The central technique is to identify and challenge irrational thoughts.
63
What does Ellis's Rational emotive behaviour therapy involve?
Vigorous argument between client and therapist which will challenge their irrational beliefs. Logical argument debating weather the thought ;logically folows the facts and empirical argument disputing wether there is actual evidence to support the irrational belief.
64
What is the goal of behavioural activation in treating depression?
work with depressed individuals to decrease their avoidance and isolation and increase their engagement in activities that have been shown to improve mood.
65
What is one strength of cognitive behavioural therapy?
-Evidence supporting its effectiveness -Many studies show that CBT works studies have shown just as effective as drugs when used to treat patients. - Means CBT is widely seen as the first choice in public healthcare systems.
66
What is one limitation of cognitive behavioural therapy?
-Lack of effectiveness for severe cases and clients with learning difficulties. -Clients can be unmotivated to engage with the sessions and hard cognitive work may not be appropriate for those with learning difficulties -Suggests it may only be appropriate for specific people with depression.
67
What is a further limitation of CBT when referring to relapse rates?
-It has high relapse rates -although effective at tackling symptoms solemn concerns over how long the benefits last. study suggest that long term outcomes are not as good as assumed -means that CBT may need to be repeated periodically.
68
What are candidate genes in relation to OCD?
Genes that create vulnerability for OCD which are involved in regulating the development of the serotonin system.
69
What is an example of a candidate gene?
5HT1-D beta implicated in the transportation of serotonin across synapse.
70
How is OCD polygenic?
It is caused by a number of different genetic variations that together cause vulnerability up to 230 genes may be involved in OCD.
71
What is the meaning of aetiologically heterogeneous?
The disorder may have different causes in different people. Also some evidence to suggest the different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations.
72
What is the role of serotonin in OCD?
If the neurotransmitter serotonin has low levels then the normal transmission of mood relevant information does not take place and a person may experience low moods. This means that even some cases of OCD may be explained by the may be explained by a lack of serotonin.
73
What is the role of decision making in OCD?
Hoarder disorder seems to be linked to faulty frontal lobes which is linked with poor decision making.
74
What is one strength of the genetic explanation for OCD?
-Has a strong evidence base -Evidence from a variety of sources which strongly suggests that some people are vulnerable -One source is twin studies, 68% of identical twins shared OCD. -means that must be some genetic influence.
75
What is one limitation to the genetic explanation for OCD?
-There are also environmental risk factors -often an environmental trigger which sets off OCD -study found that over half the OCD patients had a traumatic event -shows genetic vulnerability is only a partial explanation
76
What is one strength of the neural explanations for OCD?
-existence of some supporting evidence -antidepressants that work on serotonin are effective at reducing OCD symptoms -Parkinson's disese which is a biological disorder produces OCD symptoms so we can assume that OCD symptoms are biological -therefore biological factors may also be responsible for OCD
77
What is one limitation of the neural explanation for OCD?
-The serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD. -many people with OCD also experience depression which can involve disruption to serotonin which could mean it is only disrupted in people with OCD because they are depressed as well.
78
What are SSRIs?
The standard treatment for tackling symptoms of OCD which work on the serotonin in the brain.
79
How do SSRIs work at treating OCD?
-They prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain so increase levels of serotonin in the synapse so that the postsynaptic neurone is continuously stimulated.
80
How can SSRIs be combined with other treatments to treat OCD?
used alongside CBT and help people engage more effectively with CBT.
81
What are two alternatives to SSRIs to treating OCD?
Tricyclics- older antidepressant, has more side affects. SNRIs-increase serotonin and noradrenaline.
82
What is one strength of drug treatment for OCD?
-Evidence of effectiveness -17 studies showed better outcome for SSRIs than placebo -symptoms reduce for about 70% of people taking SSRIs -means drugs helpful for most with OCD
83
What is another strength of drug therapy for treating OCD?
-cost effective and not disruptive to peoples lives -Much faster and cheaper than psychological treatments so good for health systems -means drugs are popular with patients and doctors
84
What is one limitation of drug treatment for OCD?
-have serious side effects -indigestion, loss of sex drive, blurred vision can be distressing and long lasting in some cases -means some have a reduced quality of life when taking drugs and may stop taking them

Psychology A Level (7 decks)

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