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psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

what are the definitons of abnormality?

A

-statistical infrequency(SI)
-failure to function adequately(FFA)
-deviation from social norms(DSN)
-deviaiton from ideal mental health(DIMH)

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2
Q

things to consider with abnormality?
1.culture

A

-certain cultute have diff norms
-if behavior is culturally relative it cant be universal or common for all

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3
Q

2.context

A

-depend on situation or surroundings

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4
Q

3.time

A

-as history changes things become accpeted/ unaccepted e.g homosexuality, women rights

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5
Q

how are psychological disorders diagnosed?

A

-DSM-5 book with all disorders with symptoms asscoiated
-for doctors to decide what behaviours meet criteria

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6
Q

what was rosenhans experiment?

A

-see wether psychiatrists could tell difference between sane and insane
-field exp
-8 sane people claim they heard voices e.g ‘empty’ and ‘thud’
-said to have schizophrenia
-discharged with ‘schizophrenia in remission’

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7
Q

what does normal distribution look like?

A

-bell shape curve
-mean, mode, median in middle
-symmetrical
-dispersion either side is consistent
-most ppl near or on mean whilst gradually other decline away

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8
Q

what seen as abnormal on a graph?

A

-2SD points above or below mean
-usually approx 5% of population

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9
Q

abnormality and statistical infrequency?

A

-abnormal behaviour is statistically rare
-focus on number of people showing the bahviour rather than the accpetbality(DSN) or imapact it has on daily life(FFA) or overall happiness (DIMH)
-no judgement about quality of life or nature of mental disorders

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10
Q

strenghts of definitons of abnormality?

A

-real world app
-clinical practice for diagnosis
-intellectual disability- defined in terms of normal distribution using concept of SD to establish cut of point for abnormality
-diagnosis of this disorder can require IQ under 70%(bottom 2%)
-used with assesment tool (BDI) score of 30+ = top 5% indicates severe depression
-provides an overview of what behaviors are infrequent within the population.

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11
Q

strenghts- (no value judgement)

A

-behavior not judged to be wrong or unaccpetbale just less frequent
-objective-definiton can provide objective way of defining abnormal based on data once a way of collecting data about a behvaiour/characterisitic and cut point is agreed.

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12
Q

limitations(cut point between normality and abnormality is subjectively decided)

A

-e.g depression symptom is difficulty sleeping so we may decide to sleep fewer hours then 80% of pop is abnormal but others may feel that 90% is a better cut point

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13
Q

limitations(cultural factors)

A

-doesnt consider that whats statitstically normal in one culture is not in another
-problem to judge people of one culture with statistical norms of another
-doesnt distinguish between desirable and undesirable
(some behaviours are desirable and dont indicate mental disorder e.g high IQ but some statistically infrequent may indicate mental disorder.

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14
Q

strength and limitation (support for IQ)

A

-benefit of having intellectual disability is being able to access support services (used as evidence for assistance)
-HOWEVER, not all benefit from labels, some who can cope with their condition wont benefit from a label(social stigma associated with labels)

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15
Q

what are the key ideas on abnormality?

A

-crucial for defining and identifying psychological disorders
-hard to define
-must consider context
- culture also plays a role
-at what point does abnormality show a psychological disorder
-definitons of whats abnormal helps doctors class mental disorders

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16
Q

definitions of abnormal?

A

-statistical infrequency
-deviation from ideal mental health
-failure to function properly
-deviate from social norms

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17
Q

what are social norms?

A

-rules that society has about behaviours,values and beliefs are acceptable
-every society sets up rules for behaviour based on a set of moral standards
-anyone who deviates is considered abnormal

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18
Q

what is unacceptable behaviour?
(explicit rules?)

A

-spoken/writtem and policed by laws e.g murder, robbery
-others unspoken/written e.g be polite

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19
Q

implicit rules?

A

-e.g not laughing at a funeral is a implicit social rule but causing disorder in public is both deviaiton from social norms and againist the law

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20
Q

Norms?

A

-vary overtime based on social attitudes
-behaviour that was normal in the past may be abnormal today vice versa.

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21
Q

what can deviate from social norms?

A

-appearance
-speech
-attitudes
-values
-behavior

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22
Q

what is DSN (deviation from social norms)?

A

-unwritten rules that society outlines expected standards and behavior
-person may think/behave in a way that violates expectations
-whats acceptable is the ‘norm’
-norms are culturally relative(very few behaviors are actually universally abnormal)

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23
Q

strengths (protects society)

A

-distinguishes between desirable and non desirbale behaviour so considers effects of peoples behaviour on others so rules can be established
-so people can live in harmony

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24
Q

strengths (help people)

A

-allows people in society to intervene
-people can help others that may need help but cant get it themselves

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25
Q

strengths (real life application)

A

-in diagnosis of anti social personality disorder
-one of the symptoms is ‘absence of prosocial internal standards asscoiated with the failure to conform to lawful or culturally normative ethical behvaiour
-clinical
-key to defining characteristic of anti social personality
-e.g reckless and agressive
-signs of deviaitng from social norms
-diagnosis of schizotypal anti social disorder term ‘strange’ used to characterise thinking and behaviour
-therefore value placed for those in psychiatry

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26
Q

limitations (culturally differences)?

A

-social norms vary within and accross cultures and its hard to know when its being broken
-hearing voices normal in some cultures but abnormal in UK
-‘agressivness and deceitful behaviour’ in context of family life is socially unacceptable than in context of co-operate deal making.

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27
Q

limitations (individualism)?

A

-those who dont conform to social norms may not be abnormal but individualistic or eccentric and not problematic.

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28
Q

limitations (situational and developmental norms)?

A

-situation is important
-naturists break social norms but not percieved as having mental disorder
-nudity beaches e.g wearing clothes here would be odd
-also developmental and age norms e.g 2 year old can wear a nappy but odd for a 40 year old to wear a nappy

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29
Q

limitations (ethnocentric bias in diagnosis)

A

-western social norms reflect the behaviour of the majority(white population)
-deviates from social norms from ethnic minorities means they over represent in mental ilness statistics
-cochrane (1977) black people often diagnosed as schizophrenic then white/asian but not as high in places e.g jamaica
-here the black people are majoirty so theres bias amogst british psychiatrists

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30
Q

limitations (subjective)

A

-social norms arent real
-based on societies opinions rather than majorities
-then used to control those seen as a threat to social order
-true definition of abnormality should be objective and free from subjective factors

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31
Q

limitations (value of breaking social norms)

A

-sometimes beneficial
-e.g suffragettes did it which led to votes for women
-perhaps unfair for such situations as these to be seen as abnormal
-unfair labelling
-Nymphomania= this diagnosis was used to control women
-Drapetomania= control slaves and avoid debate

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32
Q

what is failure to function adequately?

A

-abormal behavioir shown when they cant cope with the demands of everyday life
-dont experience range of emotions or behvaiours
-behaviour leads them to dysfunction e.g disrupt work ability, eating, washing clothes and communication

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33
Q

what did rosenhan and seligman(1989) suggest?

A

-personal dysfunction has several factors
-the more an individual has , the more they are classed as abnormal

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34
Q

when is someone considered to be failing to function adequately?

A
  1. person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules e.g maintaining eye contact, respecting personal space
    2.person experiences severe personal distress
    3.persons behavior becomes irrational and dangerous to themselves or others
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35
Q

What were the several features rosenhan and seligman found to be associated with dysfunction?

A

-maladaptive behaviour
-personal distress
-violation of moral standards
-observer discomfort
-irrationality
-unconventionality
-unpredictability

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36
Q

what is personal distress?

A

-includes depression and anxiety
disorders.

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37
Q

what is maladaptive behavior ?

A

-Behaviour that stops individuals from attaining satisfactory goals,
both socially and occupationally e.g. enjoying good relationships
with other people or working effectively.

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38
Q

what is unpredictablity?

A

Displaying unexpected behaviours characterised by loss of
control e.g. attempting suicide after failing a test.

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39
Q

what is irrationality?

A
  • behaviour that cannot be explained in a rational way.
    However, people who suffer from migraines may behave irrationally.
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40
Q

what is observer discomfort?

A

-Displaying behaviour causing discomfort to others.

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41
Q

what is violation of moral standards?

A

-Displaying behaviour violating society’s moral behaviour.

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42
Q

what is unconventionality?

A

-Displaying unconventional behaviours.

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43
Q

strengths of FFA(personal perspective)

A

-recognises the personal experiences of sufferers, focusing on specifically
observable behaviours

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44
Q

strengths of FFA(tests for abnormality)

A

-judge wether prsn is distressed or distressing
-some patients may be distressed but judged as not suffering
-use of objective methods is important e.g checklists used global assesement for functioning scale

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45
Q

strengths of FFA(matches suffers perceptions)

A

-sue et al
-most people seeking clinical help believe they are suffering psycholgicaly which disrupts their ability to function
-so they seek help when they cant function = supports definiton

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46
Q

strengths of FFA(observable behaviours)

A

-judgement made on wether individuals can function by looking at obserbale behaviours

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47
Q

limitations of FFA(exhibiting dysfunction)

A

-abnormality not always presenting dysfunction
-e.g anti social personality disorder can cause great harm but appear normal
-these people considered abnormal despite not showing dysfunctional behvaiours

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48
Q

limitations of FFA(normal abnormality)

A

-there are times in people’s lives when it is normal to suffer distress,
-ike when loved ones die. Grieving is psychologically healthy to overcome loss.

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49
Q

limitations of FFA(reward of abnormality)

A

an individual’s apparently dysfunctional behaviour may
actually be rewarding. For example, a person’s eating disorder can bring affection and
attention from others.

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50
Q

limitations of FFA(distress to others)

A

behaviour may cause distress to other people and be regarded as
dysfunctional, while the person themselves feels no distress.

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51
Q

limitations of FFA(cultural differences)

A

-‘normal functioning’ varies culture to culture
-abnormal functioning of one culture should not be used to judge people from other cultures/subcultures

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52
Q

limitations of FFA(subjective nature)

A

-doesnt consider behavior from individual perspective
e.g wearing flaboyant clothing can be normal for eccentric but not a introvert
-doesnt take individual lifestyle into consideration
FFA DOESNT CONSDIER CAUSE OF POOR FUNCTIONALITY!

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53
Q

ways to define abnormality

A

-‘deviation from social norms’(what others think ab us)
-failure to function adequately(own sense of functioning)
-statistical infrequency(displaying less common characterstic)
-‘deviation from ideal mental health’ mixture of first two

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54
Q

what is definition of ideal mental health?

A

-jahoda - looks for absence of well being
-she found 6 major charactersitcs
-the absence of the criterias indicate abnormality and therefore deviate from ideal mental health

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55
Q

what are the 6 criterias?

A

1.personal autonomy= being indpendant and being able to remain stable during difficult situations
2.self attitude= having high self esteem
3.accurate perception= seeing world around them in realisitic fashion
4.resistance to stress= being able to cope w stress
5.self actualisation= being able to develop capabilities
6.adapting to environment= being competent in all areas of life e.g work, personal

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56
Q

strengths of DIMH

A

-focus on desirability and not undesirable
-holistic- condiers individual as a whole rather then certain areas of behaviour

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57
Q

limitaitons of DIMH(subjective)

A

-subjective - criteria may be hard to measure
diagnosing mental health is more subjective
relies on self report who are mentally ill, therefore relaibale

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58
Q

limitaitons of DIMH(context)

A

-mental health can be affected by context and other factors

59
Q

limitaitons of DIMH(changes over time)

A

-perceptions of reality changes over time
-in 13th cnetury seeing visions was a positive sign of religious commitment
-now seen as schizophrenia

60
Q

limitaitons of DIMH(non desirbality of autonomy)

A

-collectivist cultures emphasise communal goals and autonomy as desirbale
-africans ‘we’
-western ‘me’ view
-western culture concerned with individual attainment and goals

61
Q

what is a phobia?

A

-irrational fear of an object or situation characterized by excessive fear and anxiety

62
Q

what 2 sub categories does the DSM recognise of phobias?

A

-specfic phobia= phobia of an object e.g animal/situation
-social anxiety- phobia of speaking publically
agoraphobia= phobia of being out in public place

63
Q

what are the 3 behavioural characteristcs of phobia?

A

panic, avoidance,endurance

64
Q

what is panic?

A

-repsonse to phobia
-crying, screaming, running away
-children may freeze, cling

65
Q

what is avoidance?

A

-prevent/ avoid contact w phobia stimulus
-hard to go about daily life
-e/g fear of public toilets, spend less time outside so interfere w social life

66
Q

what is endurance?

A

-choose to remain in presence of phobia
-e.g aracnophobia might choose to stay in room with spider but keep eye on it rather than leaving

67
Q

what is emotional charactertics of phobias?

A

anxiety, emotional reponses are unreasonable, fear

68
Q

what is anxiety?

A

-emotional reponse to phobia
-unpleasant state of arousal
-prevents relaxation: hard to be happy

69
Q

what is emotional responses are unreasonable?

A

-anxiety + fear greater than whats normal
-e.g prsn may have strong emotional response to tiny spider
-others would be less anxious wposinous spider

70
Q

what is fear?

A

-immediate and unpleasant response when phobia is encountered
-more intense in short period

71
Q

what is cogntitve charactertics of phobias?

A

selective attention to phobic stimulus, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions

72
Q

what is selective attention to phobic stimulus?

A

-hard to look away from it
-keep attention to it so they can react quick
-not useful when fear is irritational
-pognophobia = hard to concentrate if someone in the room has a big beard

73
Q

what is irrtiational beliefs?

A

-prsn may ahve unfounded thoughts e.g cant be explained or no basis in reality
-e,g if i blush people will think im weak
(increases pressure on prsn to act good in social situations)

74
Q

what is cognitive distortions?

A

-perception of prsn with a phobia may be in inaccurate/ unrealistsic
-e.g mycophobia= sees mushrooms as disgusting
-ophidiophobia= see snakes as alien or agressive looking

75
Q

what is depression?

A

-mental disorder characterised by low mood and energy levels

76
Q

what does DSM(5) recognise?

A

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
-categories of depression and depressant disorders

77
Q

what are the types of depression?

A

-major depression= severe and short term
-persistant depressive disorder= long term or reoccuring depression including sustained major depression
-disruptive mood dysregualtion disorder= childhood temper tantrums
-pre menstrual dysphobic disorder= disruption to mood before and after menstruation

78
Q

what are the behvaioural characterstics of depression?

A

-activity levels, disurption to sleep and eating behaviour , agression and self harm

79
Q

what is activity levels?

A

-reduced energy
-lethargic
-withdraw from work and ED
-cant get out of bed
-opposite= depression may lead to psychomotor agitaiton = individuals cant relax and pace and up and down

80
Q

what is disruption to sleep and eating behaviour?

A

-insomania= reduce sleep
-increases sleep= hypersomnia
-appetite and eating may increase or decrease - leading to weight gain or loss

81
Q

what is aggresion and self harm?

A

-irritable- verbal and physical
-may end a RS or quit a job
-physical agression at self e.g self harm, cutting and suicide attempts

82
Q

what are emotional charactertics of depression?

A

-lowered mood, low self esteem, anger

83
Q

what is lowered mood?

A

-may feel sad
-feel ‘worried’ and ‘empty’

84
Q

what is low self esteem?

A

-how much we like ourselves
-people w depression dont rlly like themselves
-hate themselves

85
Q

what is anger?

A

-extreme anger at self or others
-agression or self harm

86
Q

cognitive characteristcs of depression?

A

-poor concentration, dwelling on negative, absolutist thinking

87
Q

what is poor concentration?

A

-cant stick with tasks they normally do
-hard to make striaghtforward decisons
-interfere w individuals work

88
Q

what is dwelling on negative?

A

-no notice to positives
-bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than happy ones

89
Q

what is absolutist thinking?

A

-blank and white thinking
-when a situation is unfortunate they see it as a complete disaster

90
Q

what is OCD?

A

obssesions and compulsions which include anxiety and irrational thinking

91
Q

what is the cycle of OCD?

A

1.obsessive thoughts
2.anxiety
3.complusions
4.relief(temporary)

92
Q

what does DSM 5 recognise of OCD?

A

-reconginses OCD and other disorders thst all have repeatitive behaviour w obsessive thoughts

93
Q

what some OCD disorders?

A

-trichotillomania= compulsive hair pulling
-hoarding disorder= gathering possessions and cant get rid of anything
-excortiaiton disorder= compulsive skin picking

94
Q

what are behavioural charactestics of OCD?

A

complusions and avoidance

95
Q

what are compulsions?

A

-repetitve= feel compelled to repeat behaviour
e.g handwashing, counting, praying , ordering
manages anxiety e.g hanwashing in response to germs
- compulsive checking = if the door is locked to check security

96
Q

what is avoidance?

A

-attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it
e.g avoid germs
but may avoid ordinary situations like emptying rubbish bins

97
Q

what are emotional charactetics of OCD?

A

Accompanying depression, guilt and disgust, anxiety and distress

98
Q

what is accompanying depression?

A

-OCD with depression
- complusive behaviour may bring relief to anxiety but only temporary

99
Q

what is anxiety and distress?

A

-OCD w powerful anxiety
-unpleasant and frightneing thoughts
-urge to repeat behvaiour causes anxiety

100
Q

what is guilt and disgust?

A

-OCD may bring guilt
-e.g over minor moral issues or disgust
directed againist sm external
like dirt or at the self

101
Q

what are cognitive charactertics of OCD?

A

-obsessive thoughts, cognitive coping strategies and insight into excessive anxiety

102
Q

what are obsessive thoughts?

A

-reocurring and obsessive thoughts
-e.g worried contimanted with germs

103
Q

what are cognitive coping strategies?

A

-reponse of OCD
-e.g pray if feeling guilt to manage anxiety
- helps disract them from everyday tasks

104
Q

what is insight into excessive anxiety?

A
  • people with OCD are aware their isnt rational
    -this is good for diagnosis
    -ppl with OCD experience catastrophic thoughts abiut worst case scenarios that might reuslt if their anxieties were jsutified (so tend to be hypervigialnt)
  • menaing they are constantly alert on potential hazard
105
Q

3 ways behaviourist approach re enforces behaviour

A

-classical- association - bell and food (pavlov dogs)
-operant- learning by reward e.g skinner - press lever and get food via positive and negative reinforcement
-vicarious reinforcement= see others rewarded- bandura bobo doll

106
Q

what was the two process model by mowrer 1960?

A

stage 1 is acculstion = classical conditoming (getting)
stage 2 is maintenance= operant

107
Q

what were the aims of the little albert study?

A
  • to see what by nature albert was afraid of
  • to see if new fears can be conditioned
  • see if fear of rat transfers to other animals
108
Q

what was the procedure of little albert?

A
  • presented w various animals
  • burning newspapers and santa claus mask
    (which had no reaction at first)
  • hitting large metal bar and exposed to rat repeatedly w noise
109
Q

what were the findings of little albert study?

A

-metal bar caused him to be startled
- stimulus generalisation occurred
(he generalised a rat with the metal sound)

110
Q

what was the convulsion of the little albert study?

A

-fear can be learnt

111
Q

bad ethics of little albert study?

A

-life long fear
-animals didn’t consent

112
Q

what does stimulus generalisation mean?

A

-taking learnt fear of rat and applying to other creatures

113
Q

evaluating little albert study

A

-questionable validity
-poor population validity ( only little albert)
-results not replicated so unreliable
-unethical rules (animals and little albert)
-lasting damage- albert not de conditioned
-very cruel

114
Q

what is accquisiton classical conditoning?

A

-intially has no fear of the neutral stimulus
with something that already triggers fear reponse (the Ucs)

115
Q

accquistioning in little albert?

A

-loud sound (UCS) = FEAR (UCR)
-rat(ns) and the (UCS) encountered close tg
-NS then becomes associated with the (UCS) and now produces fear
-rat becomes (CS) = fear (CR)
-conditoning now generalised w similar objects e.g santas beard

116
Q

whats accquiring?

A

-perhaps asscoiaitng fear witha traumatic experince

117
Q

whats maintanence?

A

-perhaps using negative reinforcemnt to avoid unpleasant stimulus , for desirbale consequence so behaviour is repeated (as anxiety is reduced so phobia maintained)
-behaviour is rewarded or punished

118
Q

evaulating two process model
(real world app)

A

-exposure therapies e.g systematic disenstitation
-avoidance behaviour reinforced by the experince of anxiety reduction and avoidance behaviour
-so when avoidance prevented = phobia cured

119
Q

evaulating two process model
limitation (cognitive aspects)

A

-only explains behaviours
-phobias arent only avoidance responses
-people hold irritational beliefs ab spiders e.g dangerous
-no explanaiton for phobic cognitions
-no full explamiatiom of phobic symptoms

120
Q

evaulating two process model
strength (phobia and trauma exp)

A

-e.g lil albert frigheting exp led to phobia
-ad de jongh - those scared of dental treatment had traumatic exp w densitry or victim of violent crime (73%)
-comapred to control grp of (21%) only exp traumatic exp with low dentala anxiety
-so asscoiation with truama and phobia

121
Q

evaulating two process model
counterpoint phobia and trauma

A

-some phobias arent caused by trauma
-e.g snake phobias
some never encountered a snake
-so association isnt strong

122
Q

evaulating two process model
(learning and evolution)

A

-explained by evolution theory
-accquired phobia of things that been presented as danger in past
-e.g snakes = prepardness

123
Q

what is systematic desentisation?

A

-behaviour therapy to reduce phobic anxiety
through classical conditoning
- learn to relax in prsenece of phobia
-phobic stimulus paired with relaxation instead of anxiety
-called counterconditoning

124
Q

first process in SD?

A

-anxiety hierarchy=
-list of situ related to the phobia stimulus
-that provoke anxiety from least frightening to most
-e.g pic of spider low and holding trantula high

125
Q

second process in SD?

A
  • relaxation=
    -relax deeply
    -cant be relaxed and afraid at the same time
    -reciprocal inhibtion
    -relaxtion= breathing excercises
    -clients need to imagine themselves in calm situ
    -learn meditation
    -use drugs e.g valium
126
Q

third process in SD?

A

-exposure=
-exposed to stimulus in relaxed state
-across several sessions
-beginning at the bottom of hierarchy
-when relaxed at the bottom of hierarchy they can start to move up
-treatment sucessful when relaxed at the top of hierarchy

127
Q

why does SD actually work?

A

-because of ‘reciprocal inhibiton’
-two emotional states contradict eachother so one has to cancel the other out
-no one can scream and cry and feel calm and relaxed at the same time

128
Q

what is flooding?

A

-immediate exposure to a very frightening situation
-for extended period of time (2-3hrs)

129
Q

how is flooding useful?

A

-prevent avoidance behaviour for long enough to show the patient that phobic stimulus is harmless
(in classical conditioning called extinction
learnt response extingusihed
when the CS is encountered without the US
CS no longer produces CR of fear)

130
Q

what are the alternative treatments?

A

-drug treatments - bensodiazepites e.g valium (anti anxiety)
-SSRI’s (anti depressants)

131
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of drug therapy?

A

-cost effective
-side effects

131
Q
A
131
Q
A
132
Q
A
132
Q

how is cognitive behavioral therapy used?

A

-identifies irritational and maladaptive thinking regarding their phobia and change them
-modifying thought should lead to change in feelings and behvaiours

133
Q

strenghts of SD(effectiveness?)

A

-suggests to be highly effective
-long lasting results which are long term
-also effective to be used on those with learning disabilities and small kids
(those w learning disablities stuggle w cognitive therapies that require complex thought)
-flooding would be too traumatic for them

134
Q

strenghts of SD(ethics)

A

-significanlty less stresful and traumatic

135
Q

weaknesses of SD(time and cost)

A

-very time consuming as it involves a step by step process
-it is not cost effective as its expensive

136
Q

weaknesses of SD(orginal cause)

A

-original cause is no considered
-only tries to treat the symptoms
-doesnt consider the psycholgical roots to why they have the phobia
-symptom subsisituion - Persons(1986)

137
Q

Strenghts of flooding(cost)

A

-clinically effective and not expensive
-may work in as little as one session as opposed to 10 to achieve the same result as SD
-may even allow for a longer session

138
Q

weaknesses of flooding(ethics)

A

-high unpleasant
-schumacher et al said Ps rated flooding as more stressful and traumatic
-although they obtained informed consent
-dropout rates from sessions may then become higher
-therpists may have to avoid this treatment

139
Q

weaknesses of flooding(suitbality)

A

-cant be used in very serious situations e.g phobia of sharks
-risks the person getting seriously hurt

140
Q

weaknesses of flooding(symptom subsitiution)

A

-only masks symptoms
-doesnt tackle underlying conditonn
-persons reported a case of a women who feared death
-her fear of death declined but her fear of being criticised got worse

141
Q

design a programme of therapy for a person with a phobia of snakes?

A
  1. look at a picture of a snake
    2.watch videos of snakes
    3.have a real life snake near you
    4.touch a snake
    5.hold a snake

Psychology (6 decks)

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