psychopathology Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
what are the 4 ways of defining abnormality
A
- statistical infrequency
- deviation from social norms
- failure to function adequately
- deviation from ideal mental health
2
Q
how is statistical infrequency measured
A
uses normal distribution on a bell curve
this definition says you are abnormal is you are outside of 2 standard deviation of the mean (in the minority)
3
Q
strengths of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality
A
- reliable + objective (based on mathematical/statistical analysis, consistent and not opinion based)
- straightforward, clear cut definition of abnormality, most do only affect the minority
4
Q
weaknesses of statistical infrequency definition of abnormality
A
- doesn’t account for desirability of behaviour - suggests all minority is negative but it’s not (eg intelligence)
- very arbitrary/fixed definition
- not all abnormal behaviours are infrequent (eg. depression, anxiety)
- cultural relativism - cultures may have different normal behaviours/characteristics
5
Q
what is a social norm
A
an expected way of behaving in society, we all tend to follow them as we want to fit in and be seen as normal (eg. using cutlery)
6
Q
deviation from social norms definition of abnormality
A
it is widely thought that ‘normal’ people choose to follow these social norms, fitting in with the majority of people.
therefore, if a person deviates from these, they are abnormal
7
Q
strength of deviation from social norms definition of abnormality
A
- easy + straightforward way of identifying normal + abnormal behaviours
8
Q
weaknesses of deviation from social norms definition of abnormality
A
- some people choose not to conform, this doesn’t necessarily mean they are abnormal, just different
- depends on the context/situation you are in (eg sometimes acceptable to not use cutlery)
- role of historical period - social norms change over time (eg homosexuality)
- role of culture - social norms vary so not universal
- very subjective - not very reliable/scientific, hard to ensure consistency between psychologists definitions of abnormal
9
Q
failure to function adequately definition of abnormality
A
focuses on how well a person is functioning in their day to day life. are they able to do all of the normal things we would expect a person to do (eg going to school)
if a person is unable to do these things for a prolonged period, they are likely to be suffering of a mental illness and could be classified as abnormal
10
Q
what are the ways of assessing level of functioning
A
GAF scale - in the DSM
Rosenham + Seligman - 7 characteristics
11
Q
how does the GAF scale assess level of functioning
A
global assessment of functioning
part of the DSM (diagnostic manual to diagnose mental illnesses)
assesses how people function in day to day life on a point scale 1-100
1 = inadequate, 100 = superior
12
Q
how did Rosenham + Seligman assess level of functioning
A
the more characteristics you display, the more abnormal you are
7 characteristics of inadequate function
- suffering = patient may suffer or inflict suffering on others
- maladaptiveness = behaviour prevents person from reaching desired goals
- irrational = behaviour defies logical sense
- observer discomfort = behaviour makes those around you uncomfortable
- vividness = others find the behaviour odd
- violating moral code = behaviour doesn’t align with social norms
- unpredictability = behaviour is unexpected
13
Q
strengths of failure to function definition of abnormality
A
- looks at degrees of abnormality - not necessarily completely abnormal if only displaying one trait
- based on observable behaviours so not as subjective
- provides useful, clear checklist for assessment - consistency + reliability
- accounts for the sufferers perception of their problems
14
Q
weaknesses of failure to function definition of abnormality
A
many people live functional lives despite having a clinical diagnosis of a disorder
who judges that someone is failing to function - subjective
we all fail to function at some point in our lives, it doesn’t mean you are abnormal/mentally ill
ethnocentric criteria - may not be applicable in other cultures
15
Q
deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality
A
According to this definition, we all have certain things that we need to be mentally healthy. If we have these, we can be ‘normal’ if we don’t it can lead to mental unhealthiness/illness, resulting in abnormality.
16
Q
3 psychologists who describe what we need for ideal mental health
A
Carl Rogers
Maslow
Jahoda
17
Q
what did Carl Rogers say we need for ideal mental health
A
- humans need unconditional love (esp as children) to be mentally healthy
- unconditional love gives us a positive self perception, high confidence + self esteem
- conditional love gives us a negative self perception, low confidence + self esteem, we spend our lives constantly changing who we are to please others + gain love/acceptance
18
Q
what did Maslow say we need for ideal mental health
A
- humans are motivated by certain things
- normal people strive to achieve them, abnormal people do not want to/do not achieve them
- he proposed a hierarchy of needs, from basic survival needs to achieving life goals
19
Q
what was Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
A
self fulfilment needs:
- self actualisation
psychological needs:
- esteem needs
- belongingness + love needs
basic needs:
- safety needs
- physiological needs
20
Q
what did Jahoda say we need for ideal mental health
A
- she suggested 6 characteristics that needed to be fulfilled
- if an individual does not experience all of the criteria, they may experience difficulties
21
Q
what were Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health
A
- positive attitude towards self (self esteem)
- self actualisation (content, feeling like the best version of yourself)
- autonomy (independence)
- resistance to stress
- environmental mastery (adapting to new situations)
- accurate perception of reality (how you perceive the world)
22
Q
strengths of deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality
A
- focuses on mental healthiness rather than illness
- holistic = looks at a persons physical, social, cognitive and emotional needs
- allows for goal setting
- humanistic approach led to counselling
23
Q
weaknesses of deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality
A
- hardly anyone actually achieves self actualisation
- based on Western ideals of individualism = focuses on what an individual needs to be happy, ignores family/community
- individual differences = assumes we all need the same things
- culturally specific priorities
24
Q
how does the DSM diagnose a phobia?
A
F - significant, prolonged fear
E - experience anxiety in response to phobic stimulus
A - going out of your way to avoid the stimulus (disrupts life)
R - irrational, each phobia affects approx 10% of the population
25
what are the 3 types of phobia
1. specific/simple
2. social
3. agoraphobia
26
what is a specific/simple phobia
fear of specific objects/situations
5 subtypes = animals, environmental, blood/injections/injury, situational, other
27
what is a social phobia
fear of being in social situations, usually based on the fear of being judged
3 subtypes = performance (performing in public), interaction (engaging with others), generalised (being in situations with other people)
28
what is agoraphobia
fear of open spaces, links to fear of having a panic attack
often develops as a result of other, smaller, phobias
29
what are the cognitive symptoms of a phobia
- irrational beliefs about the phobic stimulus that makes it hard to concentrate on other things
- perception of the stimulus may be distorted
- often hard to look away from the stimulus
30
what are the behavioural symptoms of a phobia
- trying to escape the stimulus, restless + easily startled
- panic response (screaming, crying, running away)
- avoidance behaviours
- enduring the situations and therefore experiencing high levels of anxiety
31
what are the emotional symptoms of a phobia
- high levels of anxiety + dread
- emotional response is disproportionate to the danger posed by the stimulus
32
what are the physical symptoms of a phobia
- fight or flight response, releases adrenaline which increases the heart rate, breathing + muscle tension
33
what is the 'two process' model in explaining phobias (behavioural)
Proposed by Mowrer
1. the acquisition of phobias
2. the maintenance of phobias
34
how can phobias be acquired through classical conditioning
acquired directly
a person makes an association between a previously neutral stimulus and feelings of fear
the fear of the now conditioned stimulus is generalised (eg. phobia of all dogs)
35
Little Albert research in explaining phobias
Watson + Rayner
- believed phobias develop through classical conditioning
- associate a stimulus that causes an innate fear response with a neutral stimulus
- maladaptive fear response to previously neutral stimulus (now conditioned stimulus + conditioned response)
36
Bagby research
behavioural explanation of phobias (classical conditioning)
women developed a fear of running water after getting her feet stuck in rocks near a waterfall
37
Mowrer research
behavioural explanation of phobias (classical conditioning)
found that giving an electric shock to rats after a buzzer sound quickly induced a fear response to the buzzer
38
how can phobias be acquired through social learning theory
acquired indirectly
if we see someone else experience a traumatic event, then we are likely to experience fear when presented with a similar stimulus
eg. child adopts phobia from parents
39
Ost research
behavioural explanation of phobias (social learning theory)
believed a fear of injections is often passed from parents to their children
40
through what process are phobias maintained
operant conditioning
41
through what processes are phobias acquired
classical conditioning + social learning theory
42
how are phobias maintained through operant conditioning
- avoiding or escaping the feared object/situation acts as negative reinforcement (we feel better as we have avoided it)
- this reinforces the avoidance response
- phobias are difficult to get rid of as they are constantly being reinforced
43
strengths of the behavioural explanation of phobias
scientific approach/research - aims to identify cause + effect, uses lab experiments to directly observe + measure behaviour (empirical)
explains why we develop a fear of certain things after certain experiences
practical application - treatments (systematic desensitisation/flooding)
44
weaknesses of the behavioural explanation of phobias
reductionist - oversimplifies the reasons for and causes of phobias, not always a case of having a negative experience with something (Bounton - too simplistic)
deterministic - assumes that if we do have a negative experience, we will create a negative association/phobia, does not allow for free will over our thoughts and actions
ignores individual differences - assumes we acquire + maintain phobias in the same ways (not all phobias are due to bad experiences)
45
evolutionary explanation for phobias
Learning Preparedness Theory
- more likely to learn phobias if it has evolutionary (adaptive) benefit, such as dangerous things (poisonous snakes or spiders)
- monkeys learned to fear a toy crocodile but not a toy rabbit
46
what is systematic desensitisation
- behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobias through classical conditioning
- sufferer learns a new response to the phobic stimulus (counter conditioning)
- it's impossible to be afraid + relaxed at the same time so one overcomes the other (reciprocal inhibition)
- 3 processes
47
how does systematic desensitisation work?
1. anxiety hierarchy - patient + therapist design a list of situations related to the phobia ranked from least to most scary (eg. small spider vs big spider)
2. relaxation - therapist teaches patient to relax deeply, can use breathy exercises, mental imagery, drugs like Valium, meditation
3. exposure - patient exposed to stimulus whilst in relaxed state, gradually moving up the anxiety hierarchy
the treatment is successful when the patient can stay relaxed in situations at the top of the hierarchy.
48
what are the strengths of systematic desensitisation
research shows it to be effect - Gilroy et al showed long term effectiveness
it is suitable for a diverse range of patience - learning difficulties can make it hard for a patient to understand the process of flooding or to engage with cognitive therapies (require ability to reflect on thoughts)
it is more acceptable to patients - flooding can be traumatic, systematic desensitisation teaches relaxation which can be pleasant, low refusal + attrition rates
49
weaknesses of systematic desensitisation
time consuming - gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus so can take lots of sessions (also expensive)
symptom substitution - where one phobia disappears but is replaced by another
not as effective with social phobias - they are more complex + have cognitive aspects so cognitive therapies are better for tackling the irrational thoughts
50
what is flooding
flooding involves exposing the patient to their phobic stimulus, eliminating the option of avoidance
the patient quickly learns that the phobic stimulus is actually harmless
relating to classical conditioning, this is called extinction (a learned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus, therefore the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response)
51
strengths of flooding
time + cost effective - studies show flooding can be highly effective + quicker than alternatives such as sd
52
weaknesses of flooding
not as effective with social phobias - they are more complex + have cognitive aspects so cognitive therapies are better for tackling the irrational thoughts
traumatic for patients so they are often unwilling to see it through (time and money wasted) which undermines the effectiveness
symptom substitution - where one phobia disappears but is replaced by another
53
clinical characteristics of depressions
- 'affective mood disorder'
- involves disturbances to emotions
- affects roughly 25% of people (all ages, increasingly common in young people)
- women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression than men
- often occurs in cycles/episodes
- a person must display at least 5 symptoms every day for 2 weeks to be diagnosed (also, it must be impairing function and not be attributable to any medical conditions/events)
54
what is major depression
major social + functional impairment, displays 5 or more symptoms daily for 2 weeks
55
what is minor depression
displays less than 5 symptoms daily
56
reactive depression
a response to an external event
57
endogenous depression
internal process, no activating event
58
unipolar depression
major depression with no manic episodes
59
behavioural symptoms of unipolar depression
- loss of energy (fatigue, lethargic)
- social impairment (reduced interactions with family/friends)
- weight changes (loss/gain)
- poor personal hygiene
- disturbed sleeping pattern (too much/not enough)
60
emotional symptoms of unipolar depression
- loss of enthusiam (less pleasure in daily activities)
- constant depressed mood (overwhelming sadness)
- feeling worthless/hopeless
61
cognitive symptoms of unipolar depression
- delusions (feeling guilty, personal inadequacies)
- hallucinations/suicidal thoughts
- reduced concentration/poor memory
62
what is bipolar depression
major depression, same symptoms as unipolar but also experiences mania/manic episodes
63
behavioural symptoms of bipolar depression
- high energy levels
- reckless/dangerous behaviour
- talkative
64
emotional symptoms of bipolar depression
- elevated moods
- anger/irritability
- lack of guilt
- low self esteem
65
cognitive symptoms of bipolar depression
- delusions
- irrational thought processes (poor decision making)
- polarised thinking (extremes, black + white perception of the world)
66
Beck cognitive explanation of depression
- believes depressed people hold negative faulty schemas about the world,, the future + themselves
- sufferers get caught in a cycle of negative thinking (cognitive triad)
- faulty schemas are probably a result of early childhood trauma
- in depression, latent negative schemas formed in childhood become activated by a life event or ongoing stressors
67
what is the cognitive triad
Beck
1. negative views about themselves
2. negative views about the world
3. negative views about the future
68
Ellis cognitive explanation of depression
- focuses on irrational beliefs as a source f depression
- it is not what happens to someone that causes depression, it is how they deal with it (ABC model)
- irrational beliefs due to an event causes depression
69
what is the ABC model
Ellis
A = activating event
B = belief (can be irrational or rational)
C = consequences (rational beliefs lead to healthy emotional responses, irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy responses/depression)
70
strengths of the cognitive explanation for depression
cognitive therapies have proven to be effective when treating depression which suggests that the theory is correct
acknowledges other aspects such as genetics + early childhood experiences so it is less reductionist
71
weaknesses of the cognitive explanation for depression
does not explain all types of depression (endogenous depression has no activating event so depression may have a biological cause, does not account of mania due to bipolar depression)
ignores individual differences
72
aspects of cognitive behavioural therapy
cognitive element = aims to identify irrational and negative thoughts which lead to depression (then replace them)
behavioural element = encourages patients to test their beliefs through behavioural experiments + homework
various components - initial assessment, goal setting, identifying irrational thoughts, homework
73
Beck's cognitive therapy
the therapist will help the patient to identify negative thoughts in relation to themselves, their world and their future
patient and therapist will work together to challenge these thoughts (discuss evidence for and against them)
patient will be encouraged to test the validity of their negative thoughts and may be set homework to do this
74
Ellis's Rational Emotional Behaviour Therapy
developed his ABC model to include D + E
main idea is to challenge irrational thoughts through dispute (argument)
therapist will dispute (D) patients irrational beliefs to replace them with effective beliefs/attitudes (E)
logical (logic of thoughts is questioned) + empirical (evidence sought for the thoughts) types of dispute
patient may be set homework to identify their own irrational beliefs and then prove them wrong, as a result the beliefs begin to change
75
strengths of CBT
very effective (however not with severe depression)
long term, lasting benefits as it empowers the individual to be able to help themselves
Elkin et al + March et al
76
weaknesses of CBT
requires motivation and putting in the necessary time and effort
takes time so can be expensive
relies on a good relationship between the client + therapist
77
Elkin et al
240 patients with depression treated with psychotherapy, CBT or drugs (also a placebo control group)
treatment lasted 16 weeks
drugs most effective for severe depression
35% placebo effect (control group reported feeling better)
all therapies more effective than placebo
30% of patients did not respond to therapy
78
March et al
found CBT was as effective as antidepressants
327 adolescents with depression, looked at effectiveness of CBT, drugs + both combined
after 36 weeks:
- 81% of antidepressant group improved
- 81% of CBT group improved
- 86% of combination group improved
79
what are the clinical characteristics of OCD
- it is an anxiety disorder
- sufferers experience persistent and intrusive thoughts occurring as obsessions, compulsions or a combination
- most sufferers know that their thoughts + behaviours are excessive and irrational but they cannot consciously control obsessions and compulsions
- obsessions and compulsions affect their ability to conduct everyday activities
- around 2% of population
80
what are obsessions
- internal components
- thoughts
- involve forbidden/inappropriate ideas and images that aren't based in reality which then leads to feelings of extreme anxiety
- eg. being convinced there are germs everywhere
81
what are compulsions
- external component
- behaviour/actions as a result of obsessions
- intense, uncontrollable urges to repetitively person tasks/behaviours
- an attempt to reduce anxiety or prevent the feared event from happening
82
behavioural characteristics of OCD
- compulsions which are repetitive in nature, used to reduce/manage anxiety
83
emotional characteristics of OCD
- feelings of anxiety due to persistent obsessions
- may experience depression as daily activities are interrupted so low mood
84
cognitive characteristics of OCD
- obsessive thoughts which occur over and over, such as the fear of contamination
- they know their obsessions and compulsions are irrational
- catastrophic thinking
85
Miguel et al
twin studies
found that if one mz twin has OCD then there is a 53-87% chance the other twin will develop it, 22-47% chance in dz twins
86
Carey and Gottesman
twin studies
found that identical twins showed an 87% concordance rate for obsessive behaviours, 47% in fraternal twins
87
Lewis
family studies
37% of OCD patients had parents with OCD
21% had siblings with OCD
88
Taylor
found that over 230 different genes may be involved in OCD so it is polygenic
89
evaluation of the genetic explanation of OCD
environmental factors also play a role such as traumatic events (Cromer et al found that over hald the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in their past + OCD was more severe with multiple traumas)
higher concordance rate in identical twins may be due to nature as identical twins are more likely to experience a similar experience/be treated the same
diathesis stress model (certain genes leave some people more vulnerable but its not certain a mental disorder will develop, needs an environmental trigger)
90
genetic explanation of OCD AO1
The genetic evaluation for OCD suggests that OCD is an illness that it caused by faulty genes. Research suggests that it is often inherited and runs in families, with twin studies showing high concordance rates such as Carey and Gottesman finding an 87% concordance rate in identical twins. Whilst specific genes have been identified, OCD is thought to involve a large number of genes and is therefore polygenic. For example, Taylor identified over 230 different genes involved in OCD. The main genes that are thought to play a key role in OCD are the SERT gene and the COMT gene. The SERT gene is responsible for levels of serotonin in the brain and it is thought that a faulty SERT gene results in sufferers having low levels of serotonin. The COMT gene is responsible for dopamine levels and a faulty COMT gene is associated with higher levels of dopamine.
91
neurotransmitters explanation of OCD (biological)
One biological explanation of OCD is an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the brain. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter which regulates mood, anxiety and impulse control. People with OCD are thought to have abnormally low levels of serotonin. This may cause the urge to perfom repetitive behaviours (compulsions) and intrusive thoughts (obsessions). If there is too little serotonin, communication between key brain areas such as the orbitofrontal cortex, caudate nucleus and thalamus may become overactive. This may lead to a 'worry circuit' in the brain causing obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviours. Another neurotransmitter that is involved in OCD is dopamine. Research suggests that abnormally high levels of dopamine can affect areas of the brain such as the basal ganglia, contributing to overactive behavioural responses.
92
orbitofrontal cortex explanation of OCD (biological)
One biological explanation of OCD is the orbitofrontal cortex becoming overactive. The orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for decision making and evaluating and identifying risks. In people with OCD, the orbitofrontal cortex becomes overactive. This means that it may detect a threat or worry where there isn't one. It then sends a worry signal to caudate nucleus which filters out irrational worries. If it is faulty, it fails to suppress these signals and they are passed to the thalamus. This thalamus becomes overactive and sends the signals back to the orbitofrontal cortex. This leads to a worry circuit which causes obsessive thoughts and the urge to perform compulsive behaviours in order to relieve anxiety.
