Psychopathology Flashcards
(13 cards)
Defining abnormality: Statistical infrequency
Statistical infrequency is a definition of abnormality, and states that a behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon, or not seen very often in society.
Strength - objective determination of abnormal. The statistical infrequency definition provides a clear ‘cut-off point’ for defining abnormality and there is no issue of subjectivity. A behaviour is seen as abnormal on the basis of how uncommon it is and there is no room for personal or subjective judgements to interfere with a diagnosis.
Limitation - statistically abnormal characteristics can often be highly desirable, e.g. very high IQ; statistically normal characteristics can often be undesirable, e.g. obesity.
Defining abnormality: Deviation from social norms
Deviation from social norms is a definition of abnormality where a behaviour is seen as abnormal if it violates unwritten rules (social norms) about what is acceptable in a particular society.
Strength - gives a culturally specific definition of abnormal behaviour. The deviation from social norm definition takes into account the culture in which the behaviour occurs because what is considered normal and appropriate behaviour in one culture might be considered abnormal and inappropriate in another. For example, in approximately 75 countries in the world, homosexuality is still considered abnormal, while in the rest of the world, homosexuality is considered normal.
Limitation - does not help give a reliable definition of abnormal behaviour that can be used across cultures.
Defining abnormality: Failure to function adequately
Failure to function adequately is a definition of abnormality- where a person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life and live independently in society.
Strength - this can be measured by those closest to the person, and also tested by self-response to interview.
Limitation - people suffering from a mental disorder often believe they are functioning adequately. Also, “adequately” is a subjective term without a reliable definition.
Defining abnormality: deviation from ideal mental health
Deviation from ideal mental health is a definition of abnormality, which suggests that abnormal behaviour should be defined by the absence of particular (ideal) characteristics. Jahoda proposed 6 principles of ideal mental health, including having a positive view of oneself and being resistant to stress. Therefore, if an individual does not demonstrate Jahoda’s criteria, they would be classified as abnormal.
Limitation - many people who are not suffering from a mental disorder would not be able to meet all of the criteria. The individualistic focus of the criteria would also lack external validity as they cannot be generalised to a more collective culture.
Clinical characteristics: phobias
Clinical characteristics of phobias include behavioural, emotional and cognitive symptoms:
Behavioural - symptoms include avoidance. However, if a person if unable to avoid their phobia, this causes panic, which may result in crying, screaming or running away.
Emotional - symptoms include excessive and unreasonable fear and anxiety.
Cognitive - symptoms include selective attention and irrational beliefs. The person will find it difficult to direct their attention away from the feared object or situation, and their belief about the object or situation is irrational, e.g. all spiders are dangerous/deadly.
Clinical characteristics: OCD
Clinical characteristics of OCD include behavioural, emotional and cognitive symptoms:
Behavioural - symptoms include compulsions (e.g. excessive hand washing)
Emotional - symptoms include anxiety and distress caused by obsessions, which consist of persistent and/or forbidden thoughts.
Cognitive - symptoms include obsessive thoughts (obsessions), which are the main cognitive feature of OCD. Sufferers of ICD know that their obsessions and compulsions are irrational, and that they experience selective attention directed towards the anxiety-generating stimuli.
Clinical characteristics: depression
Clinical characteristics of depression include behavioural, emotional and cognitive symptoms:
Behavioural - symptoms include loss of energy, disturbances with sleep and changes in appetite.
Emotional - symptoms include depressed mood, feelings of sadness, and feelings of worthlessness.
Cognitive - symptoms include diminished ability to concentrate and difficulties with attention. In addition, cognitive symptoms also include focusing on the negative aspects of the situation, while ignoring the positives, and in some cases thoughts of self-harm, death or suicide.
Behavioural explanations: phobias
Classical conditioning - according to classical conditioning, phobias can be acquired through associative learning. The process of classical conditioning can explain how we learn to associate something we do not fear (NS), for example a dog, with something which triggers a fear response (UCS), for example being bitten. After an association has formed, the dog (now a CS) causes a response of fear (CR) and consequently, we develop a phobia of dogs, following a single incident of being bitten.
Operant conditioning - although classical conditioning can explain why we develop a phobia, it struggles to explain why our phobias do not decay over time. According to operant conditioning, phobias can be negatively reinforced. This is where a behaviour is strengthened because an unpleasant consequence is removed. For example, if a person with a phobia of dogs sees a dog whilst out walking, they might try to avoid the dog by crossing over the road. This avoidance reduces the person’s feelings of anxiety and negatively reinforces their behaviour, making the person more likely to repeat this behaviour (avoidance) in the future.
Behavioural treatments: phobias
Based on the assumption that if a behaviour (e.g. a phobia) is learned, then it can also be unlearned.
Behavioural treatments (e.g. systematic desensitisation, and flooding) are based on classical conditioning and the concept of extinction.
Both rely on increasing contract between the phobic person and the cause of the phobia: systematic desensitisation gradually (e.g. if you are afraid of snakes you will look at a cartoon picture first, then a real picture, then a film, and end with finally being able to touch a snake) and flooding immediate (e.g. in the previous example, you would be put in unavoidably close contact with a real snake immediately).
Cognitive explanations: depression
Suggest that faulty thinking/thought processes make a person vulnerable to depression. People with depression often show cognitive distortions, faulty information processing and negative thinking.
Cognitive psychologists, such as Beck and Ellis, believe that these thinking patterns are the cause rather than symptoms of depression.
Beck’s cognitive triad theory - 3 components: one’s view of oneself; one’s view of one’s future; one’s view of the world in general, e.g. I am useless; I am always going to be useless; the world is a hopeless place and I am useless within it.
Ellis’ ABC model - 3 cognitive components: something happens (Activating event); you have a belief about the event that happened (Belief); you have an emotional reaction (Consequence) to the belief. For example, my friend just walked past me; this is because she doesn’t want to be my friend anymore; I hate her, and everyone - I have no friends.
Cognitive treatment: depression
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques. There are two different strands of CBT, based on Beck#s and Ellis’ theories. All CBT starts with an initial assessment, in which the patient and therapist identify the patient’s problems.
Therefore, the patient and therapist agree on a set of goals and plan of action to achieve these goals. Both forms of CBT then aim to identify the negative and irrational thoughts; however, their approaches are slightly different.
Beck’s cognitive therapy: helps the patient to identify negative thoughts in relation to themselves, their world and their future, using Beck’s cognitive triad.
Ellis’ rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT): involves techniques such as empirical argument and logical argument. The patient and therapist will then work together to challenge the irrational thoughts, by discussing evidence for and against them. The patient may be set homework, to help them challenge and test their negative knowledge.
Biological explanations: OCD
Biological explanations for OCD suggests that an individual’s genes and/or brain functioning make them vulnerable to developing this disorder. Biological explanations are divided into genetic explanations and neural explanations.
Genetic explanations: OCD is inherited and individuals inherit specific genes or gene mutations which cause OCD.
Neural explanations: abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, particularly serotonin and dopamine, are implicated in OCD. Neural explanations also suggest that particular regions, especially the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex, are implicated in OCD.
Biological treatments: OCD
Based on the assumption that drugs can be used to rebalance neurochemical imbalances in sufferers.
Anti-depressants (SSRIs): as low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD, anti-depressants (SSRIs) have been used to try to address this imbalance. Because OCD involves high levels of anxiety, anti-anxiety drugs such as Valium and Diazepam are also often prescribed.
Soomro et al. (2008) conducted a review of the research examining the effectiveness of SSRIs and found in 17 different trials that SSRIs were more effective than placebos in the treatment of OCD. This supports the use of biological treatments, especially SSRIs, for OCD.
