Psychopathology Knowledge Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
What is psychopathology?
A
The study of mental disorders in terms of their causes, development, classification, and treatment.
2
Q
What does ‘abnormality’ refer to?
A
Patterns of behaviours, thoughts, or emotions that deviate from societal norms, cause distress, impair daily functioning or pose a risk to oneself or others.
3
Q
Define deviation from social norms.
A
Abnormality that occurs when a person displays actions or behaviours that deviate drastically from established norms, expectations, or rules in a community.
4
Q
What is a social norm?
A
An unwritten rule or expectation that guides the behaviour of individuals within a particular group, community, or society.
5
Q
What is failure to function adequately?
A
Abnormality that occurs when an individual struggles to manage or fulfil the typical responsibilities and expectations required for daily life.
6
Q
What does statistical infrequency mean in terms of abnormality?
A
Abnormality that occurs when an individual possesses a characteristic, trait, or behaviour that is statistically rare compared to the rest of the population.
7
Q
Define deviation from ideal mental health.
A
Abnormality that occurs when an individual fails to meet specific criteria or standards for good mental well-being.
8
Q
What are the seven features of failure to function adequately according to Rosenhan and Seligman?
A
- Personal distress
- Maladaptive behaviour
- Unpredictability
- Irrationality
- Observer discomfort
- Violation of moral standards
- Unconventionality
9
Q
Fill in the blank: The two-process model explains phobias through _______ and operant conditioning.
A
[classical conditioning]
10
Q
What is the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF)?
A
A scale that rates a person’s level of social, occupational, and psychological functioning.
11
Q
What is an example of a disorder that illustrates the failure to function adequately definition?
A
Schizophrenia.
12
Q
True or False: The statistical infrequency definition considers cultural factors.
A
False.
13
Q
What percentage of the population is considered ‘abnormal’ according to the statistical infrequency definition?
A
5%.
14
Q
What is the significance of the average IQ being 100 with a standard deviation of 15?
A
68% of the population scores between 85 and 115, while those scoring below 69 are classified as ‘abnormal’.
15
Q
What limitation does the deviation from social norms definition have?
A
It varies across cultures and can lead to unfair labeling and human rights abuses.
16
Q
What is an important characteristic of antisocial personality disorder?
A
Failure to conform to culturally acceptable ethical behaviours.
17
Q
What does the FFA definition often overlap with?
A
Deviation from social norms.
18
Q
What is a major criticism of the FFA definition?
A
It may label helpful and functional behaviours as abnormal.
19
Q
How does the FFA definition assist clinicians?
A
It focuses on observable behaviour and how these behaviours impact daily life.
20
Q
What is a potential issue with personal judgement in defining abnormality?
A
It can lead to subjectivity in determining whether behaviour is distressing or not.
21
Q
What is an example of behaviour that is considered unconventional but not necessarily abnormal?
A
Practicing extreme sports.
22
Q
What is the relationship between social norms and the definition of abnormality?
A
Social norms are subjective and can vary, making the definition of abnormality context-specific.
23
Q
Fill in the blank: According to the statistical infrequency definition, the top ____% and bottom ____% of a population are classified as ‘abnormal’.
A
[2.5%]
24
Q
What is the classification for individuals who score below 69 on an IQ test?
A
They are classed as ‘abnormal’ and may receive a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder.
25
What percentage of the population scores between 70 and 130 on an IQ test?
95%
26
What is a limitation of the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?
It does not consider cultural factors.
27
Give an example of how cultural factors can affect the definition of normality.
The average height for women in the UK is 162cm, while in Guatemala it is 150.9cm.
28
How is the statistical infrequency definition useful in clinical assessments?
It can be used as part of a formal diagnosis or to assess an individual's symptoms.
29
What score on the Beck depression inventory indicates severe depression?
30+
30
True or False: Infrequent characteristics are always undesirable.
False
31
What is a potential negative consequence of labeling someone as ‘abnormal’?
It can create social stigma.
32
What does the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality rely on?
Distributions and mathematics.
33
What is an example of a common behavior that may not be classified as abnormal under the statistical infrequency definition?
Depression, which affects about 10% of people.
34
According to Jahoda’s criteria, what is the definition of self-actualisation?
Being in a state of contentment and feeling that one has become the best version of themselves.
35
List Jahoda's six criteria for ideal mental health.
* Positive attitude towards self
* Self-actualisation
* Autonomy
* Resistance to stress
* Environmental mastery
* Accurate perception of reality
36
What is a criticism of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health?
They are unrealistic and few people can consistently satisfy all the criteria.
37
What cultural bias exists in Jahoda's ideal mental health criteria?
Some criteria are specific to individualistic Western cultures.
38
What is a challenge in measuring Jahoda’s criteria?
Many criteria are abstract and lack clear, objective measures.
39
How does the deviation from ideal mental health definition approach abnormality?
It considers an individual as a whole person.
40
What are the three types of characteristics that can be identified for phobias, depression, and OCD?
* Behavioural characteristics
* Emotional characteristics
* Cognitive characteristics
41
What is a phobia?
An irrational fear of an object or a situation.
42
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
* Panic
* Avoidance
* Endurance
43
What emotional characteristic is commonly associated with phobias?
Anxiety
44
What cognitive characteristic might a person with a phobia experience?
Irrational beliefs
45
What is depression characterized by?
Low mood and low energy levels.
46
List some behavioural characteristics of depression.
* Low activity levels
* Changes to eating behaviour
* Changes to sleep
* Aggression and self-harm
47
What emotional characteristic defines depression?
Lowered mood
48
What cognitive characteristic is common in individuals with depression?
Negative schema
49
What is OCD characterized by?
Obsessions and/or compulsions.
50
What are compulsions in OCD?
Repetitive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety.
51
What emotional characteristic often accompanies OCD?
Anxiety and distress
52
What cognitive characteristic is prevalent in OCD sufferers?
Obsessive thoughts
53
What is self-loathing?
A feeling that resembles self-hate, where a person feels they are not good enough and do not deserve love.
## Footnote
Individuals may believe that bad things happen to them for a reason.
54
What percentage of OCD sufferers experience obsessive thoughts?
90%
## Footnote
These thoughts often involve fears like contamination or an intruder entering.
55
What are cognitive coping strategies?
Strategies adopted to help cope with obsessions and manage associated anxiety.
## Footnote
Examples include praying or meditating.
56
What do OCD sufferers understand about their thoughts?
They know their thoughts are irrational but struggle to control them.
## Footnote
This awareness is key for diagnosis.
57
What is the two-process model?
An explanation for phobias suggesting they are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.
58
Define classical conditioning.
Learning by association, where an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus are paired, leading the neutral stimulus to produce a similar response.
## Footnote
Example: A dog bite (unconditioned stimulus) causes fear (unconditioned response) and the dog becomes a conditioned stimulus.
59
What is operant conditioning?
A form of learning where behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
60
What did Watson and Rayner (1920) aim to demonstrate?
Whether an irrational fear could be induced by classical conditioning.
61
What was the result of the Little Albert experiment?
Albert developed a fear response towards the white rat and similar objects.
## Footnote
This demonstrated that phobias can be learned through classical conditioning.
62
What is negative reinforcement in the context of phobias?
When an individual avoids an unpleasant situation, leading to a desirable outcome, thus increasing the likelihood of that avoidance behavior in the future.
63
What is symptom substitution?
When one phobia disappears but another appears in its place, suggesting that the treatment may not address underlying causes.
64
What does systematic desensitisation involve?
A behavioral therapy designed to reduce anxiety to a phobia by creating an anxiety hierarchy and teaching relaxation techniques.
65
What is the anxiety hierarchy?
A list of situations related to the phobic object, ranked from least to most frightening.
66
What is reciprocal inhibition?
The principle that two emotional states cannot exist simultaneously, meaning relaxation should overtake fear.
67
What is flooding in the context of phobia treatment?
A behavioral therapy where a person is immediately exposed to their most frightening situation to reduce anxiety.
68
What is extinction in flooding therapy?
The process where a learned fear response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus.
69
What did Gilroy et al. (2002) find about systematic desensitisation?
That clients treated with systematic desensitisation were less fearful compared to a control group, showing long-term benefits.
70
What is one limitation of systematic desensitisation?
It is not effective for all phobias, particularly those not developed through classical conditioning.
71
What is preparedness according to Seligman?
The idea that animals are genetically prepared to learn associations between fear and stimuli that were life-threatening in their evolutionary past.
72
What is the primary goal of systematic desensitisation?
To gradually reduce anxiety to a phobia through counterconditioning.
73
How is flooding considered cost-effective?
Because it can often be successful in just one session, reducing overall treatment costs.
74
What is a criticism of flooding?
It is highly traumatic and can lead to clients not completing their treatment due to high levels of anxiety.
75
What is systematic desensitisation?
A therapeutic method that gradually exposes clients to their phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety over time.
## Footnote
It often requires multiple sessions, typically 10 or more.
76
How does flooding differ from systematic desensitisation?
Flooding involves immediate and intense exposure to the phobic stimulus, often in one session, making it a quicker treatment option.
## Footnote
This can reduce costs for healthcare providers as more clients can be treated in a shorter time.
77
What is a major disadvantage of flooding?
It can cause high levels of anxiety and trauma, leading many clients to not complete the treatment.
## Footnote
This may make flooding not cost-effective if clients do not finish their therapy.
78
What professional is typically required for flooding treatment?
A skilled therapist who ensures client safety and conducts the treatment in a controlled environment.
79
For which type of phobias is flooding less effective?
Social phobias.
## Footnote
Psychologists often believe they stem from irrational thinking rather than unpleasant experiences.
80
What does flooding focus on in terms of phobia treatment?
Reducing the symptoms of the phobia rather than addressing its underlying causes.
81
What is symptom substitution in the context of flooding?
When treating one phobia, another phobia may develop.
## Footnote
For example, treating a fear of death may worsen a fear of criticism.
82
Define the cognitive approach.
An approach focused on how mental processes, including thoughts, perceptions, and attention, impact behavior.
83
What is a schema?
A mental framework of ideas and information developed through experience.
84
What is a negative self-schema?
Negative information a person holds about themselves based on past experiences that can lead to cognitive biases.
85
Define cognitive biases.
Systematic errors in thinking that impact how individuals process information, perceive others, and make decisions.
86
What are the three components of Beck's negative triad?
* Negative view of the world
* Negative view of the self
* Negative view of the future
87
What is the ABC model proposed by Ellis?
A model that explains depression as a process where an activating event (A) triggers an irrational belief (B), leading to a consequence (C) like depression.
88
What does cognitive vulnerability refer to?
A predisposition to develop negative patterns of thinking that increase the likelihood of experiencing depression.
89
What is faulty information processing?
When individuals with depression focus on negative aspects of a situation while ignoring positive ones.
90
What is the consequence of an activating event in Ellis's model?
It leads to emotional and behavioral consequences, often resulting in depression.
91
Fill in the blank: Beck's cognitive theory of depression suggests that a person develops a dysfunctional view of themselves because of three types of _______.
negative thinking.
92
What is a limitation of Beck's cognitive approach?
It cannot fully explain how depression develops due to difficulties in determining cause and effect.
93
What is Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)?
A form of CBT based on Ellis's ABC model that extends it to ABCDEF, where D is dispute, E is effect, and F is new feelings.
94
What is the primary goal of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?
To change the way a person thinks and behaves by challenging negative thoughts.
95
What is one major limitation of Ellis's ABC model?
It only explains reactive depression and not endogenous depression.
96
What has research shown regarding the effectiveness of CBT?
CBT is one of the most effective treatments for depression, with clients often experiencing lasting improvements.
97
True or False: Beck's cognitive theory does not account for biological factors in depression.
True.
98
What is a key aspect of the cognitive approach to treating depression?
Challenging irrational thoughts to improve mood and behavior.
99
What do cognitive explanations fail to address in some cases of depression?
Hallucinations and bizarre beliefs experienced by some individuals.
100
What is the central component of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)?
Challenging negative thoughts
## Footnote
Clients learn to identify, observe, and monitor their own thoughts.
101
What does CBT aim to help clients test?
The reality of their negative beliefs
## Footnote
Clients are seen as 'scientists' exploring their beliefs.
102
List some common homework tasks assigned in CBT.
* Keeping a diary of thoughts
* Journaling distressing thoughts
* Tracking cognitive distortions
* Practicing breathing exercises
103
What does REBT stand for?
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
## Footnote
REBT extends the ABC model to ABCDEF.
104
What does the 'A' in the ABC model stand for?
Activating event
105
What does the 'B' in the ABC model represent?
Belief
106
What is the purpose of disputing irrational thoughts in REBT?
To replace them with more realistic and rational thoughts
107
What is the aim of Behavioral Activation in CBT?
To increase engagement in positive activities
108
Research by March et al. (2007) compared the effect of CBT to what?
Antidepressant drugs and a combination treatment
109
What percentage of clients relapsed after CBT according to Shehzed Ali et al. (2017)?
42% within six months and 53% within a year
110
True or False: CBT can be used as the sole treatment for all cases of depression.
False
111
What is the biological approach in psychology focused on?
Physical processes like genetic inheritance and neural functions
112
Define genetic explanations in the context of OCD.
Genes that may increase vulnerability to OCD
113
What is the diathesis-stress model?
The idea that certain genes increase the likelihood of a mental health condition when triggered by environmental stress
114
What is meant by OCD being polygenic?
OCD is caused by a combination of multiple genetic variations
115
What neurotransmitter is associated with mood regulation and is often low in individuals with OCD?
Serotonin
116
What effect does dopamine have in individuals with OCD?
Dopamine levels are thought to be abnormally high
117
Which brain regions are implicated in OCD?
* Basal ganglia
* Orbitofrontal cortex
118
What is the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in OCD?
Involved in converting sensory information into thoughts and actions
119
What did Zohar et al. (1987) find regarding SSRIs and OCD?
SSRIs significantly reduced OCD symptoms in treated individuals
120
What are candidate genes in the context of OCD?
Genes that create vulnerability for OCD, often linked to serotonin regulation
121
Fill in the blank: The _______ model suggests that certain genes increase the likelihood of developing OCD when combined with environmental stress.
diathesis-stress
122
What is the significance of the left parahippocampal gyrus in OCD?
Associated with processing unpleasant emotions
123
What does the term 'aetiologically heterogenous' refer to in the context of OCD?
Different causes for OCD in different individuals
124
What did Cromer et al. (2007) find regarding traumatic events and OCD?
Over half of OCD patients had a traumatic event in their past
125
True or False: The genetic explanation for OCD applies uniformly to all individuals with the disorder.
False
126
What are the neural systems involved in decision making that are also implicated in OCD?
The same systems that function abnormally in OCD patients
## Footnote
No specific brain system has been found to always play a role in OCD.
127
What does the evidence suggest about the relationship between neurotransmitters and OCD?
Various neurotransmitters and brain areas do not function normally in patients with OCD
## Footnote
This ‘abnormal’ functioning may not necessarily cause the disorder.
128
What did Hu (2006) find regarding serotonin levels in OCD patients compared to non-sufferers?
Serotonin levels were lower in OCD patients
## Footnote
This supports the idea that low serotonin is associated with OCD.
129
What is the biological approach to explaining OCD?
It emphasizes genetic and neural factors while ignoring psychological and environmental influences
## Footnote
A more holistic view may be necessary.
130
What does the biological approach imply about individual choice in developing OCD?
It implies no room for individual choice or influence from external factors
## Footnote
This limits the understanding of the condition.
131
Define the biological approach.
A perspective that emphasizes the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural functions.
132
What is drug therapy?
Treatment involving drugs that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or bodily systems.
133
What are Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)?
A class of drugs used to treat mental health disorders by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin in the brain.
134
How do SSRIs affect serotonin levels?
They prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin, increasing levels in the synapse.
135
What is a typical daily dose of Fluoxetine?
20mg
## Footnote
It can be given as a capsule or liquid.
136
What happens if an SSRI is not effective after three to four months?
The dose can be increased, or it can be combined with other drugs.
137
What are tricyclics, and how do they relate to SSRIs?
An older type of antidepressant that has the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRIs but with more severe side effects.
138
What are Serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)?
Another option for those who do not respond to SSRIs, increasing levels of serotonin and noradrenaline.
139
What did Soomro et al. (2009) find regarding SSRIs and placebos?
Drugs were more effective than placebos in reducing the severity of OCD symptoms.
140
What is a strength of drug therapy for OCD?
Requires little input or effort from the user.
141
What is a limitation of drug therapy?
All drugs have unpleasant side effects, which can lead patients to stop taking them.
142
What did Maina et al. (2001) find regarding relapse after stopping drug therapy?
Patients relapsed within a week if treatment stopped.
143
How effective are SSRIs in reducing OCD symptoms according to Julien et al. (2007)?
50-80% of OCD patients’ symptoms are reduced significantly.
144
What is a concern regarding the publication of studies on drug effectiveness?
Studies showing positive results are more likely to be published, leading to a publication bias.
