Public Speaking Flashcards
(323 cards)
1
Q
abstract
A
A summary of a magazine or journal article, written by someone other than the original author.
2
Q
abstract words
A
Words that refer to ideas or concepts.
3
Q
acceptance speech
A
A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.
4
Q
acronym
A
A word composed of the initial letters or parts of a series of words
5
Q
active listening
A
Giving undivided attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand the speaker’s point of view.
6
Q
ad hominem fallacy
A
An attempt to discredit a position by attacking the people who favor it.
7
Q
adrenaline
A
A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress.
8
Q
after-dinner speech
A
A brief, often humorous, ceremonial speech, presented after a meal, that offers a message without asking for radical changes in attitude or action.
9
Q
agenda-setting function
A
The work of informative speaking in raising topics to attention and creating a sense of their importance.
10
Q
agreement
A
The third stage in the persuasive process requires that listeners not only accept the speaker’s recommendations but remember their reasons for doing so.
11
Q
alliteration
A
Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words.
12
Q
amplification
A
The art of developing ideas by finding ways to restate them in a speech.
13
Q
analogical persuasion
A
Creating a strategic perspective on a subject by relating it to something about which the audience has strong positive or negative feelings.
14
Q
analogical reasoning
A
Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.
15
Q
analogous color scheme
A
Colors adjacent on the color wheel; used in a presentation aid to suggest both differences and close relationships among the components represented.
16
Q
analogy
A
A connection established between two otherwise dissimilar ideas or things.
17
Q
animation
A
The way objects enter and/or exit a PowerPoint slide.
18
Q
antithesis
A
A language technique that combines opposing elements in the same sentence or adjoining sentences.
19
Q
appreciative listening
A
Listening for pleasure or enjoyment.
20
Q
appreciative phase
A
Phase of listening in which we enjoy the beauty of messages, responding to such factors as the simplicity, balance, and proportion of speeches and the eloquence of their language.
21
Q
arguments
A
Arrangements of proofs designed to answer key questions that arise in persuasive designs.
22
Q
articulation
A
The physical production of particular speech sounds.
23
Q
assimilation
A
The tendency of listeners to interpret the positions of a speaker with whom they agree as closer to their own views than they actually are.
24
Q
atlas
A
A book of maps.
25
attitude
A frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, topic, etc
26
audience demographics
Observable characteristics of listeners, including age, gender, educational level, group affiliations, and sociocultural backgrounds, that the speaker considers when adapting to an audience.
27
audience dynamics
The motivations, attitudes, beliefs, and values that influence the behavior of listeners.
28
autocratic leader
A leader who makes decisions without consultation, issues orders or gives direction, and controls the members of the group through the use of rewards or punishments.
29
award presentation
A speech of tribute that recognizes achievements of the award recipient, explains the nature of the award, and describes why the recipient qualifies for the award.
30
awareness
This first stage in the persuasive process includes knowing about a problem, paying attention to it, and understanding how it affects our lives.
31
balance
Achieving a balance among the major parts of a presentation.
32
bandwagon
A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.
33
bar graph
A graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items.
34
begging the question
Assuming that an argument has been proved without actually presenting the evidence.
35
beliefs
Ideas we express about subjects that may explain our attitudes towards them.
36
bibliography
A list of all the sources used in preparing a speech.
37
Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution.
38
biographical aid
A reference work that provides information about people.
39
body
The middle part of a speech, used to develop the main ideas.
40
body language
Communication achieved using facial expressions, eye contact, movements, and gestures
41
bookmark
A feature in a Web browser that stores links to Web sites so they can be easily revisited.
42
boomerang effect
An audience’s hostile reaction to a speech advocating too much or too radical change.
43
brainstorming
A method of generating ideas by free association of words and thoughts.
44
brief example
A specific instance illustrating a more general idea.
45
briefing
A short, informative presentation given in an organizational setting.
46
bulleted list
A presentation aid that highlights themes by presenting them in a list of brief statements.
47
burden of proof
The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary.
48
call number
A number used in libraries to classify books and periodicals and to indicate where they can be found on the shelves.
49
call the question
A motion that proposes to end the discussion on a motion and to bring it to a vote.
50
catalogue
A listing of all the books, periodicals, and other resources owned by a library.
51
categorical design
The use of natural or traditional divisions within a subject as a way of structuring an informative speech.
52
casual order
A method of speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship.
53
casual reasoning
Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.
54
causation design
A pattern for an informative speech that shows how one condition generates, or is generated by, another.
55
central idea
A one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech.
56
ceremonial speech
(ceremonial speech) Speaking that celebrates special occasions. Common forms are speeches of tribute, inspiration, eulogies, toasts, introduction, making and accepting awards, and the after-dinner speech. Their deeper function is to share identities and reinforce values that unite people into communities.
57
channel
The means by which a message is communicated.
58
chart
A visual aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list form.
59
chronological design
Pattern of speech organization that follows a sequence of important events in relating the history of a subject or predicting its future.
60
chronological order
A method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern.
61
claims
Conclusions that go beyond factual statements to make judgments about their subjects.
62
cliche
A trite or overused expression.
63
clip art
Pictures and symbols that represent common objects, processes, and ideas.
64
clutter
Discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea.
65
co-active approach
A way of approaching reluctant audiences in which the speaker attempts to establish goodwill, emphasizes shared values, and sets modest goals for persuasion.
66
cognitive restructuring
The process of replacing negative thoughts with positive, constructive ones.
67
collaborative problem solving
In group communication, an approach that gathers participants from separate areas of the public or private sectors for their input on a problem.
68
commemorative speech
A speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea.
69
communication apprehension
Anxiety or fear experienced before and during public speaking.
70
communication environment
The setting in which communication occurs, including both physical and psychological factors.
71
comparative advantages order
A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions.
72
comparative design
A pattern for an informative speech that relates an unfamiliar subject to something the audience already knows or understands.
73
comparison
A statement of the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.
74
comparison and contrast
An informative speech design that points out similarities and differences between subjects or ideas.
75
competence
The speaker’s appearance of being informed, intelligent, and well prepared.
76
complementary color scheme
Colors opposite one another on the color wheel; used in a presentation aid to suggest tension and opposition among various elements.
77
comprehensive phase
Phase of listening in which we focus on, understand, and interpret spoken messages.
78
comprehensive listening
Listening to understand the message of a speaker.
79
computer-assisted presentation
The use of commercial presentation software to join audio, visual, text, graphic, and animated components.
80
concept
A belief, theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like.
81
concrete words
Words that refer to tangible objects.
82
confusion of fact and opinion
A misuse of evidence in persuasive speaking in which personal opinions are offered as though they were objective facts, or facts are dismissed as though they were mere opinion.
83
connective
A word or phrase that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between them.
84
connotative meaning
The emotional, subjective, personal meaning that certain words can evoke in listeners.
85
consensus
A group decision that is acceptable to all members of the group.
86
constructive listening
The role of the listener in the creation of meaning. Involves discovering the speaker’s intention, tracing out the implications and consequences of the message, and applying the message to one’s life.
87
contrast
A statement of the differences among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.
88
contrast effect
A tendency by listeners to distort the positions of a speaker with whom they disagree and to interpret those positions as even more distant from their own opinions than they actually are.
89
conversational quality
Presenting a speech so it sounds spontaneous no matter how many times it has been rehearsed.
90
coordination
The requirement that statements equal in importance be placed on the same level in an outline.
91
creating common ground
A technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience.
92
creditability
The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.
93
crescendo ending
A conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity.
94
criteria
Standards on which a judgment or decision can be based.
95
critical listening
The careful analysis and evaluation of message content.
96
critical thinking
Focused, organized thinking about such things as the logical relationships among ideas, the soundness of evidence, and the differences between fact and opinion.
97
critique
An evaluation of a speech.
98
cultural gridlock
Occurs when the cultural differences in a group are so profound that the varying agendas, priorities, customs, and procedures create tensions that block constructive discussion.
99
cultural sensitivity
The respectful, appreciative awareness of the diversity within an audience.
100
culturetypes
Terms that express the values and goals of a group’s culture.
101
debate
The clash of opposing ideas, evaluations and policy proposals on a subject of concern.
102
decoding process
The process by which the listener determines the meaning of the speaker’s message and decides the speaker’s intent.
103
deductive reasoning
A form of thinking that begins with a generally accepted truth, connects an issue with that truth, and draws a conclusion based on the connection.
104
definition
A translation of an unfamiliar word into understandable terms.
105
deliberation
Allowing all sides to express their opinions before a decision is made.
106
delivery cues
Directions in a speaking outline to help a speaker remember how she or he wants to deliver key parts of the speech.
107
demagogues
Political speakers who try to inflame feelings without regard to the accuracy or adequacy of their claims in order to promote their own agendas.
108
demographic audience analysis
Audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religious orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background.
109
denotative meaning
The dictionary definition or objective meaning of a word.
110
derived credibility
The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.
111
description
A statement that depicts a person, event, idea, and the like with clarity and vividness.
112
designated leader
A person who is elected or appointed as leader when the group is formed.
113
dialect
A speech pattern associated with an area of the country or with a cultural or ethnic background.
114
dialogue group
A group assembled to explore the underlying assumptions of a problem but not necessarily to solve it.
115
direct quotation
Repeating the exact words of another to support a point.
116
discriminative phase
Phase of listening in which we detect the vital sounds of spoken communication.
117
disinformation
Communication that offers what appears to be information, but that actually deceives listeners and impedes their understanding.
118
dissolve ending
A conclusion that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement.
119
dyad
A group of two people.
120
dynamism
The impact made on listeners when they perceive a speaker as confident, decisive, and enthusiastic.
121
egocentrism
Holding the view that one’s own experiences and thoughts are the norm.
122
either-or
A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.
123
electronic brainstorming
A group technique in which participants generate ideas in computer chat groups or by email.
124
emergent leader
A group member who emerges as a leader during the group's deliberations.
125
empathic phase
Phase of listening in which we suspend judgment, allow speakers to be heard, and try to see things from their points of view.
126
emphatic listening
Listening to provide emotional support for a speaker.
127
empirical
A form of thinking that emphasizes the close inspection of reality.
128
enactment
The fourth stage of the persuasive process in which listeners take appropriate action as the result of their agreement.
129
encoding process
The process by which the speaker combines words, tones, and gestures to convey thought and feelings to the audience.
130
enduring metaphors
Metaphors of unusual power and popularity that are based on experience that lasts across time and that crosses many cultural boundaries.
131
enunciation
The manner in which individual words are articulated and pronounced in context.
132
ethical decisions
Sound ethical decisions involve weighing a potential course of action against a set of ethical standards or guidelines.
133
ethics
The branch of philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human affairs.
134
ethnocentrism
The belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures.
135
ethos
The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.
136
eulogy
A speech of tribute presented upon a person’s death.
137
event
Anything that happens or is regarded as happening.
138
evidence
Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something.
139
example
A specific case used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like.
140
expanded conversational style
A presentational quality that, while more formal than everyday conversation, preserves its directness and spontaneity.
141
expert testimony
Testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields.
142
explanations
A combination of facts and statistics to clarify a topic or process mentioned in a speech.
143
extemporaneous speech
A carefully prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented from a brief set of notes.
144
extemporaneous presentation
(extemporaneous speaking) A form of presentation in which a speech, although carefully prepared and practiced, is not written out or memorized.
145
extended example
A story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point.
146
eye contact
Direct visual contact with the eyes of another person.
147
facts and statistics
Items of information that can be used to illustrate and prove points made by the speaker. When expressed numerically, such information appears in statistics.
148
factual example
An illustration based on something that actually happened or that really exists.
149
fair use
A provision of copyright law that permits students and teachers to use portions of copyrighted materials for educational purposes.
150
fallacy
An error in reasoning.
151
false cause
An error in causal reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. This error is often known by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo propter hoc, meaning 'after this, therefore because of this.'
152
false analogy
A comparison drawn between things that are dissimilar in some important way.
153
feedback
The audience’s immediate response to a speaker.
154
figurative analogy
A comparison made between things that belong to different fields.
155
figurative language
The use of words in certain surprising and unusual ways in order to magnify the power of their meaning.
156
filtering
Listening to only part of a message, the part the listener wants to hear.
157
fixed-alternative questions
Questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives.
158
flawed statistical comparisons
Statistical reasoning that offers fallacious conclusions by comparing unequal and unlike situations.
159
flow chart
A visual method of representing power and responsibility relationships.
160
font
A complete set of type of the same design.
161
formal outline
The final outline in a process leading from the first rough ideas for a speech to the finished product.
162
frame of reference
The sum of a person's knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. No two people can have exactly the same frame of reference.
163
free-reign leader
A leader who leaves members free to decide what, how, and when to act, offering no guidance.
164
gazetteer
A geographical dictionary.
165
gender stereotyping
Generalizations based on oversimplified or outmoded assumptions about gender and gender roles.
166
general encyclopedia
A comprehensive reference work that provides information about all branches of human knowledge.
167
general purpose
The broad goal of a speech.
168
generic 'he'
The use of 'he' to refer to both women and men.
169
gestures
Motions of a speaker's hands or arms during a speech.
170
global plagiarism
Stealing a speech entirely from a single source and passing it off as one's own.
171
good form
A primary principle of structure, based on simplicity, symmetry, and orderliness.
172
goodwill
The audience's perception of whether the speaker has the best interests of the audience in mind.
173
graph
A visual aid used to show statistical trends and patterns.
174
graphics
Visual representations of information.
175
great expectation fallacy
The mistaken idea that major change can be accomplished by a single persuasive effort.
176
groupthink
Occurs when a single, uncritical frame of mind dominates group thinking and prevents the full, objective analysis of specific problems.
177
habitual pitch
The level at which people speak most frequently.
178
hasty generalization
An error in reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.
179
hearing
The vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the brain.
180
hidden agenda
A set of unstated individual goals that may conflict with the goals of the group as a whole.
181
hypothetical example
An example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation or event.
182
identification
A process in which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common values, goals, and experiences.
183
ideographs
Words that convey in a compressed way a group’s basic political faith or system of beliefs.
184
imagery
The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas.
185
immediacy
A quality of successful communication achieved when the speaker and audience experience a sense of closeness.
186
implied leader
A group member to whom other members defer because of her or his rank, expertise, or other quality.
187
impromptu speech
A speech delivered with little or no immediate preparation.
188
inclusive language
Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.
189
incremental plagiarism
Failing to give credit for particular parts of a speech that are borrowed from other people.
190
inflections
Changes in the pitch or tone of a speaker's voice.
191
information cards
Records of facts and ideas obtained from an article or book used in research.
192
informative speech
A speech designed to convey knowledge and understanding.
193
informative value
A measure of how much new and important information or understanding a speech conveys to an audience.
194
initial credibility
The credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.
195
inoculation effect
Preparing an audience for an opposing argument by answering it before listeners have been exposed to it.
196
integrity
The quality of being ethical, honest, and dependable.
197
interference
Anything that impedes the communication of a message. Interference can be external or internal to listeners.
198
internal preview
A statement in the body of the speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next.
199
internal summary
Reminding listeners of major points already presented in a speech before proceeding to new ideas.
200
introduction
The first part of a speech, intended to gain the audience’s attention and to prepare them for the rest of the presentation.
201
invalid analogy
An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.
202
inversion
Changing the normal order of words to make statements memorable and emphatic.
203
invisible Web
The multitude of Web databases and other resources that are not indexed by search engines.
204
jargon
The specialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group.
205
key-word outline
An outline that briefly notes a speaker's main points and supporting evidence in rough outline form.
206
kinesics
The study of body motions as a systematic mode of communication
207
lay testimony
Information that is derived from the firsthand experience of ordinary citizens.
208
leadership
The ability to influence group members so as to help achieve the goals of the group.
209
likeableness
The quality of radiating goodness and goodwill and inspiring audience affection in return.
210
line graph
A graph that uses one or more lines to show changes in statistics over time or space.
211
listener
The person who receives the speaker's message.
212
listening
Paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear.
213
literal analogy
A comparison made between subjects within the same field.
214
logos
The name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.
215
magnification
A speaker’s selecting and emphasizing certain qualities of a subject to stress the values they represent.
216
main motion
A proposal that would commit a group to some specific action or declaration.
217
main points
The major points developed in the body of a speech.
218
maintenance needs
Communicative actions necessary to maintain interpersonal relations in a small group.
219
malapropisms
Language errors that occur when a word is confused with another word that sounds like it.
220
manuscript speech
A speech that is written out word for word and read to the audience.
221
marking
Adding a gender reference when none is needed-e.g., "a woman doctor."
222
master of ceremonies
A person who coordinates an event or program, sets its mood, introduces participants, provides transitions, and may also present awards.
223
maxims
Brief and particularly apt sayings.
224
mean
The average value of a group of numbers.
225
median
The middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest.
226
memorized text presentations
Speeches that are committed to memory and delivered word for word.
227
mental dialogue with the audience
The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech.
228
message
Whatever a speaker communicates to someone else.
229
metaphor
An implicit comparison, not introduced with the word 'like' or 'as,' between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common.
230
metasearch engine
A search aid that sends a researcher's request to several search engines at the same time.
231
mirror questions
Questions that repeat part of a previous response to encourage further discussion.
232
mode
The number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers.
233
model
An object, usually built to scale, that represents another object in detail.
234
monotone
A constant pitch or tone of voice.
235
Monroe's motivated sequence
A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
236
motion
Formal proposal for group consideration.
237
motivated sequence design
A persuasive speech design that proceeds by arousing attention, demonstrating a need, satisfying the need, visualizing results, and calling for action.
238
motivation
Internal forces that impel action and direct human behavior toward specific goals.
239
mountain graph
A variation of a line graph in which different colors are used to fill in the areas above and below the line(s).
240
move to amend
move that offers the opportunity to modify a motion presently under discussion.
241
multimedia presentation
A speech that uses computer software to combine several kinds of visual and/or audio aids in the same talk.
242
multisided presentation
A speech in which the speaker’s position is compared favorably to other positions.
243
myth of the mean
The deceptive use of statistical averages in speeches.
244
mythos
A form of proof that connects a subject to the culture and tradition of a group through the use of narratives.
245
name-calling
The use of language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or groups.
246
narrative
A story used to illustrate some important truth about a speaker’s topic.
247
need
The first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?
248
non sequitur fallacy
A deductive error occurring when conclusions are drawn improperly from the premises that precede them.
249
nonverbal communication
Communication based on a person's use of voice and body, rather than on the use of words.
250
object
Anything that is visible, tangible, and stable in form.
251
onomatopoeia
The use of words that sound like the subjects they signify.
252
open-ended questions
Questions that allow respondents to answer however they want.
253
optimum pitch
The level at which people can produce their strongest voice with minimal effort and that allows variation up and down the musical scale.
254
oral report
A speech presenting the findings, conclusions, decisions, etc., of a small group.
255
order
A consistent pattern used to develop a speech.
256
panel discussion
A structured conversation on a given topic among several people in front of an audience.
257
parallel
Wording an outline’s main points in the same way in order to emphasize their importance and to help the audience remember them.
258
parallelism
The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences.
259
paraphrase
To restate or summarize an author's ideas in one's own words.
260
parliamentary procedure
A set of formal rules that establishes an order of business for meetings and encourages the orderly, fair, and full consideration of proposals during group deliberation.
261
participative leader
A leader who seeks input from group members and gives them an active role in decision-making.
262
patchwork plagiarism
Stealing ideas or language from two or three sources and passing them off as one's own
263
pathos
The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.
264
pause
A momentary break in the vocal delivery of a speech.
265
peer testimony
Testimony from ordinary people with first-hand experience or insight on a topic.
266
periodical database
A research aid that catalogues articles from a large number of journals or magazines.
267
personalize
To present one's ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the experience of the audience.
268
personification
A figure of speech in which nonhuman or abstract subjects are given human qualities.
269
persuasion
The art of convincing others to give favorable attention to our point of view.
270
persuasive speech
A speech designed to change or reinforce the audience's attitudes, beliefs or actions.
271
pictographs
On a chart, a visual image symbolizing the information it represents.
272
pie graphs
A graph that highlights segments of a circle to show simple distribution patterns.
273
pitch
The position of a human voice on the musical scale.
274
plagiarism
Presenting another person's language or ideas as one's own.
275
plan
The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
276
positive nervousness
Controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for her or his presentation.
277
post hoc fallacy
A deductive error in which one event is assumed to be the cause of another simply because the first preceded the second.
278
postpone consideration
(move to postpone consideration) A motion that defers discussion until some specified time when necessary information will be available.
279
practicality
The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?
280
precision
Using information that is closely and carefully related to the specific purpose and context of a speech; particularly important when a topic varies widely in application.
281
preliminary bibliography
A list compiled early in the research process of works that look as if they might contain helpful information about a speech topic.
282
preliminary tuning effect
The effect of previous speeches or other situational factors in predisposing an audience to respond positively or negatively to a speech.
283
preparation outline
A detailed outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, subpoints, connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of a speech.
284
prepersuasive function
The way in which informative speaking shapes listeners’ perceptions, preparing them for later persuasive speeches on a topic.
285
PREP Formula
An outlining technique for an impromptu speech: state a point, give a reason or example, and restate the point.
286
presentation
The act of offering a speech to an audience, integrating the skills of nonverbal communication, especially body language, with the speech content.
287
presentation
A PowerPoint file containing all the slides for a given speech.
288
presentation aids
Supplemental materials used to enhance the effectiveness and clarity of a presentation.
289
prestige testimony
Information coming from a person who is highly regarded but not necessarily an expert on a topic.
290
preview
The part of the introduction that identifies the main points to be developed in the body of the speech and presents an overview of the speech to follow.
291
principle of closure
The need for a satisfactory end or conclusion to a speech.
292
principle of proximity
The idea that things occurring together in time or space should be presented in the order in which they normally happen.
293
principle of similarity
The principle that like things should be grouped together.
294
probes
Questions that ask an expert to elaborate on a response.
295
problem-cause-solution order
A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem.
296
problem-solution design
A persuasive speech pattern in which listeners are first persuaded that they have a problem and then are shown how to solve it.
297
problem-solution order
A method of speech organization in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem.
298
problem-solving small group
A small group formed to solve a particular problem.
299
procedural needs
Routine 'housekeeping' actions necessary for the efficient conduct of business in a small group.
300
process
A systematic series of actions that leads to a specific result or product.
301
pronunciation
The use of correct sounds and of proper stress or accent on syllables in saying words.
302
proof
An interpretation of evidence that provides a good reason for listeners to agree with the speaker.
303
proxemics
The study of how human beings use space during communication.
304
qualifiers
Words that suggest the degree of confidence a speaker has in the conclusion of his or her argument.
305
question of fact
A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion.
306
question of policy
A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.
307
question of value
A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action.
308
quoting out of context
Quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the
statement from the words and phrases surrounding it.
309
rate
The speed at which a person speaks.
310
reasoning
The process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.
311
reasoning from principle
Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.
312
reasoning from specific instances
Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.
313
receiver apprehension
Fear of misinterpreting, inadequately processing and/or not being able to adjust
psychologically to messages sent by others.
314
recency
Ensuring that the information in a speech is the latest that can be provided.
315
red herring fallacy
The use of irrelevant material to divert attention.
316
reference work
A work that synthesizes a large amount of related information for easy access by
researchers.
317
reflective-thinking method
A five-step method for directing discussion in a problem-solving small group.
318
refutative design
A persuasive speech design in which the speaker tries to raise doubts about,
damage, or destroy an opposing position.
319
reinforcer
A comment or action that encourages further communication from someone being
interviewed.
320
reliability
The trustworthiness of information critical to the credibility of a speech.
321
reluctant testimony
Highly credible form of supporting material in which sources of evidence speak
against their apparent self-interest.
322
reluctant witness
Those who offer reluctant testimony; i.e., they speak against their apparent self interest.
323
repetition
Reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive
clauses or sentences.
