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1
Q

When do you not reference?

A
  • When it is considered common knowledge
  • Where it is your own opinion
  • When it is your own data / research
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2
Q

How many authors should be listed as ‘et al’

A

6/7

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3
Q

What is stratified sampling?

A
  • Sample set into groups
  • Then chosen at random from these groups
  • Ensures all populations make up the sample and are represented
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4
Q

What is quota sampling?

A
  • Sample taken from a stratified population until a pre-assigned quota in each stratum is represented
  • Not random
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5
Q

When is quota sampling useful?

A
  • Quick, cheap

- When detail isn’t important

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6
Q

what is cluster sampling

A
  • simple random sampling within each cluster

- used when ‘natural’ but relatively homogenous grouping are evident in a population (e.g., regions in the UK)

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7
Q

what is categorical data

A
  • normal or ordinal
  • distinct categories
  • do not have a numerical value
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8
Q

how can ordinal data be made numerical?

A

assigning a rank scale value to each category

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9
Q

ordinal vs nominal data

A

nominal: no natural order e.g., sex
ordinal: have natural order e.g., poor, good, excellent

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10
Q

what type of data would the number of cases of MRSA on a particular ward be classed as?

A

numerical discrete

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11
Q

what type of data is age?

A

numerical continuous

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12
Q

what is relative frequency

A

the % of the total frequency accounted for by particular variables

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13
Q

what does a low s.d indicate?

A

the data points lie close to the mean

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14
Q

how is incidence rate calculated

A

number of new cases occurring in a set period of time / number of people at risk in this time (e.g., exposed people)

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15
Q

what is included in the epidemiological triad

A

time
place
person

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16
Q

diseases with short duration incidence and prevalence rates

A

high incidence

low prevalence

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17
Q

how is mortality rate calculated

A

number of people who die from the disease / number of people who die from all causes in a set period of time

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18
Q

how is data adjusted for (e.g., for age, gender)

A

Stratum specific rates - population split into stratum (age,gender)
Incidence calculated in each, weighting then assigned to each group & data adjusted accordingly

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19
Q

how is case fatality calculated

A

No. Of people who die for a disease In period / no. Of people with the disease

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20
Q

how are odds ratios calculated

A

Odds for disease of exposed group / odds of disease of unexposed group

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21
Q

what are dichotomous variables

A

The variable takes 1 of 2 forms (that are co merely different) e.g. Dead or alive

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22
Q

what type of data are histograms used for?

A

numerical continuous

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23
Q

what is the use of IQR

A

Able to form a graphical representation of probability distribution (box plot)

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24
Q

In normally distributed data what measure would you use to look at spread of data ?

A

mean and standard deviation

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25
what measure of distribution should be used in non normally distributed data
median and IQR (so that it is not affected by outliers) plotted on a histogram
26
what does a 95% confidence interval mean?
If the experiment were repeated 100 times the results would fall into that range 95 times
27
what is standard error a measure of?
How reliable the sample population mean is from that of the population, so measures precision
28
The CI should not cross the value where the variable is said to have no effect. Where are the points of no impact in ratio and difference
``` ratio = 1 difference = 0 ```
29
When is correlation the appropriate statistical analysis
When both the outcome and exposure are numerical
30
If the outcome is numerical, and the exposure is categorical (independent groups) what is the appropriate statistical analysis?
T test
31
A hypothesis proposed after analysis is which type of hypothesis?
Inductive hypothesis - explanation as why two sets of info are related to one another
32
What is a deductive hypothesis?
A hypothesis proposed before analysis - predict what the relationship will be. You think that at least 2 variables are related to each other
33
If data is positively skewed, which way will its 'tail' be on a box plot?
tail to the right
34
When refining a search, what function does adding an asterisk (*) to the end of a word have?
Denotes a truncated ending where alternative endings would be accepted e.g. Teen* would show up teenage, teenagers, teenager, teens
35
What are Boolean operators ? Give examples
Words used to refine searches, e.g. AND, OR, NOT
36
what type of study is a census
Cross sectional - looks at entire population at defined time assessing prevalence
37
what is responsiveness
Whether a measure can detect real change (over time?)
38
what is regression analysis
Statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables
39
What is a type 1 error ?
The incorrect rejection of a true NULL hypothesis- false positive for alternative hypothesis (too optimistic)
40
What is a type 2 error ?
Failure to reject a false NULL hypothesis- false negative for alternative hypothesi s(Too pessimistic)
41
What is chi squared used for ?
Determine association between categorical variables
42
How is standard error calculated ?
Standard deviation/square root of sample size
43
What happens after you propose a hypothesis?
Test it - then reject and modify or not reject
44
Define population
Every member of a defined group of interest
45
What is the only true random sample?
Simple random sample - population members are chosen purely a random
46
What is interval sampling?
When you take samples at set intervals | e.g drugs company take a sample of every 100th drug produced to check that it's being made correctly
47
What type of variable is the number of a beds on a ward?
Numerical discrete
48
What type of variable is weight or height?
numerical continuous
49
For what type of data would you use a bar chart?
Categorical and discrete metric variables
50
For what type of data would you use a pie chart?
Categorical, may be used for numerical data
51
What is cumulative frequency?
the running total
52
How do you calculate frequency density?
Freq density = frequency / class width
53
examples of measures of spread
range, IQR, s.d
54
examples of measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
55
Negative skew would result in the greatest spread in what quartile on a box plot?
lower quartile
56
Which type of skew would give these results; Q1-Q2 > Q2-Q3?
negative skew
57
What phase of a clinical trial assesses effectiveness and dosage of drugs on a few hundred patients WITH the disease?
phase 2
58
What is a consensus study?
A consensus statement developed by professionals via a group consensus process that is intended to advance health professional and/or public understanding of a targeted health problem.
59
In what type of paper/article/study would you write a short paper discussing any of these 4 things; updating readers on new methods, providing an overview of the topics in an issue, press opposing opinions or clarifying positions?
editorial
60
What do p-values mean?
P = probability of obtaining the results of the test given that the null hypothesis is true
61
How do you calculate prevalence?
= Number of people with a disease at a certain time / number of people in the population that time
62
How to calculate risk?
Risk = number of new cases / number at risk
63
In what type of study do you use a risk ratio?
cohort - use to find risk factors of a disease
64
In what type of study would you use odds ratio?
case-control study
65
What is relative risk reduction?
RRR = 100 - RR. Essentially its the difference the new treatment makes to the condition (compared to old/untreated group)
66
how to calculate the odds of an event
odds = probability of an event (disease) / probability of the event NOT occurring
67
how to calculate odds ratio
OR = odds of disease for exposed group / odds for disease in unexposed group.= probability of disease occurring in exposed group / probability of disease NOT occurring in unexposed group
68
Do larger or smaller studies have a larger CI?
Smaller studies = large CI Large studies = small CI (larger studies reduce spread of data and inc the accuracy of the result in relation to population)
69
Which type of health prevention is this; prevention of disease by treating clinical cases, reducing disability and maximising function?
Tertiary prevention
70
define reliabliity
gives the same result on retesting
71
r = -1 then what is the correlation?
perfect negative correlation
72
'r' is what coefficient?
Pearson correlation coefficient. Values lie between -1 & 1
73
If T statistic in T test is more than critical value = reject or accept the null hypothesis?
Reject the null hypothesis
74
What term described this definition 'can detect real changes when they occur'?
responsiveness
75
What three key things should health outcomes be?
valid reliable responsive
76
Type of efficacy described as 'production that matches the consumer demand'?
allocative efficacy
77
Term used to described this statement 'concerned with the fairness or justice of the distributions of costs and benefits'
Equity - another criterion for allocating resources, who benefits may matter to society.
78
Type of efficacy described as 'obtaining maximum output from a set of given resources'?
Technical efficacy - is concerned with how best to deliver a programme, or achieve a given objective
79
When do you not need ethical approval?
audits / evaluations
80
Benefits of knowing health outcomes?
- identify treats and procedures that work and which are less effective - identify national and international variation - monitor performance against targets and over time
81
covariates
confounders or competing exposures
82
what are confounders
A covariate that precedes both the 'exposure' and the 'outcome'
83
what are competing exposures
covariates that compete with the exposure for the outcome
84
what is a mediator
a variable which comes after the exposure but before the outcome
85
what are clinical guidelines and quality standards
Clinical guidelines constitute recommendations for strengthening practice, while quality standards are benchmarks for auditing ‘best practice’

RESS 3 (2 decks)

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