Quiz 1 Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
Applied Psychology
A
the branch of psychology concerned with practical problems
2
Q
Behavior
A
an observable activity or response by an organism
3
Q
Behaviorism
A
the theoretical orientation asserting that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior
4
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Clinical Psychology
A
the branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis & treatment of psychological disorders
5
Q
Cognition
A
mental process or thinking
6
Q
Critical Thinking
A
the use of cognitive skills and strategies to increase the probability of a desirable outcome
7
Q
Culture
A
widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms and institutions that are transmitted socially across generations
8
Q
Empiricism
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the point of view that knowledge should be based on observation
9
Q
Ethnocentrism
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the tendency to view one’s own group as superior to other groups
10
Q
Evolutionary Psychology
A
examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive or survival value for a species
11
Q
Functionalism
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school of thought asserting that psychology’s major purpose was to investigate the function or purpose of consciousness
12
Q
Humanism
A
the psychological theory asserting that human beings are unique and fundamentally different from other animals
13
Q
Introspection
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observation of one’s own conscious experience
14
Q
Natural Selection
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the Darwinian principle that characteristics that have a survival advantage for a species are more likely to be passed onto subsequent generations
15
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Positive Psychology
A
uses theory and research to better understand adaptive, creative and fulfilling aspects of human existence
16
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Psychiatry
A
the branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders
17
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory
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Freduian theory that explains personality and abnormal behavior in terms of unconscious processes
18
Q
Psychology
A
the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it and the profession that applies this knowledge to solving various practical problems
19
Q
SQ3R
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a five step procedure to improve study skills (Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review)
20
Q
Stimulus
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any detectable input from the environment
21
Q
Structuralism
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school of thought based on notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements
22
Q
Testwiseness
A
ability to use the characteristics and formats of a test to maximize one’s score
23
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Theory
A
a system of ideas used to link together or explain a set of observations
24
Q
Unconscious
A
according to psychoanalytic theory that portion of the mind containing thoughts and memories and wishes not in awareness but nonetheless exerting a strong effect on human behavior
25
Sigmund Freud
A controversial (emphasized the importance of sexuality) Austrian physician. Created psychoanalytic theory, where focus is on the unconscious mind. Behaviour is determined by experiences from your past that lay dormant in your unconscious mind.
26
G. Stanley Hall
An American who studied briefly with Wundt. He established the first American research laboratory at John Hopkins (1883), launched America’s first psychology journal (1887), and he was the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) (1892).
27
Donald Hebb
A Canadian psychologist who was influential in neuropsychology. He described the concept of cell assembly. He suggested that repeated stimulation leads to development of cell assemblies. These cells aid in facilitating behaviour
28
William James
An American scholar who wrote Principles in Psychology (1890). Chief architect of functionalism. James describes consciousness as a continuous flow of thoughts (stream of consciousness).
29
Brenda Miller
a founder of neuropsychology in Canada
30
Carl Rogers
An American psychologist. A prominent figure of the humanistic movement. He believed human behaviour is lead by an individual’s sense of self (self-concept), which animals presumably lack.
31
Martin Seligman
An American psychologist who founded the positive psychology movement. He believes that the aim of positive psychology to change from not only repairing the worst qualities in life, but also building positive qualities.
32
B.F. Skinner
An American psychologist. Helped develop behaviour analysis (radical behaviourism) and founded the experimental analysis of behaviour. He used operant conditioning (associative learning process through which the strength of behaviour is modified by reinforcement of punishment) and created the operant conditioning box (Skinner box).
33
John B. Watson
Founder of behaviourism. Redefined what scientific psychology is (no longer study consciousness). He argued that each is made, not born, and believed that behaviour is governed primarily by the environment.
34
Wilhelm Wundt
He established the first formal laboratory for psychology research in Leipzig in 1879. Characterized as “the founder of psychology.” Wundt’s work opened the door for psychology to become its own discipline, the scientific study of consciousness.
35
Identify the origins of the word psychology. (p. 3)
- psychology comes from two Greek words in the 16h century, psyche, meaning soul and logos, referring to the study of a subject
- parents of psychology are philosophy and physiology
36
Summarize Wundt’s accomplishments and contributions to the field of psychology. (pp. 4-5)
- Mounted a campaign to make psychology an independent discipline rather than a stepchild of philosophy and physiology which succeeded
- Established the first formal laboratory for the research of psychology at the university of Leipzig in 1879 which is noted as the ‘birth of psychology’
- Made the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology
- Made the primary focus of psychology on consciousness and the awareness of immediate experience
37
Compare structuralism and functionalism, and discuss their impact on the development of psychology. (pp. 5-7)
- Structuralism: school of thought based on notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its basic elements
- Functionalism: school of thought asserting that psychology’s major purpose was to investigate the function or purpose of consciousness
- One investigates the functions of consciousness and one studies the structures of consciousness
- William James argued that structuralists approach misses the real nature of conscious experience as the flow of thoughts is what should be focuses on
- Structuralists gravitated to the laboratory and functionalists were more interested in analyzing behaviour in a certain setting
- Darwin’s theory of natural selection impacted the functions of consciousness rather than the structure
38
Who is William James? Describe his perspective on psychology and his contributions. (p.6)
- William James was the founder of functionalism. Originally started off in medicine, then moved towards psychology. Wrote the book ‘Principles of Psychology’
- James argued that structuralists naturally gravitated to the lab and missed the real nature of the conscious experience, functionalists wanted to see the actual behaviour in action in their natural setting
- Interested in Darwin’s natural selection theory
39
Describe Watson’s view of psychology with special reference to the nature-nurture issue and animal research. (pp. 7-8)
- Watson was the founder of behaviourism in the early 1900s altered the course ofpsychology by changing psychology to the science of behaviour
- Behaviourism: a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour
- Mental processes were part of private events, in order for psychology to be a science it needs to be any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism- Behaviourism was a historical curiosity
- Watson’s view of psych was to only study observable behaviour not thoughts (behaviourism) nature vs nurture (environment vs experience) ex: is a criminal born or made? Watson argued a criminal was made not born meaning he learnt how to be a criminal based on his experiences
- Each is made not born
- Animal research (Pavlov’s dog) many psychologists started studying animals instead of humans because it was easier to control animals then humans
40
Define Watsonian Behaviourism (p.7)
- learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental conditions
- behaviourism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interactions with the environment. Behaviorists believe that out responses to environmental stimuli shapes our behaviours.
41
Why did the Gestalt psychologists take issue with the behaviorist school? (p. 8)
- Gestalt theorist primarily concerned with perception, argued that psychology should continue to study conscious experience rather than overt behaviour
42
Why did Freud’s psychoanalytic theory encounter resistance within psychology? (pp. 9-10)
- Freud was an Austrian physician who early in his career dreamed of achieving fame by making an important discovery. He was one of the most controversial intellectual figure of modern times.
- Treated people troubled with psychological problems such as irrational fears, obsessions, and anxieties with a process he developed called psychoanalysis
- Unconsciousness contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behaviour
- Psychoanalysis: theory that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behaviour
- It conflicted with the spirit of the times in psychology. Many psychologists were becoming uncomfortable with their earlier focus on conscious experience and were turning to the less murky subject of observable behaviour
- Psychologists believed that psychoanalytic theory was unscientific that would eventually fade away. Conscious experience was hard to study let alone unconscious experiences
43
Who was B. F. Skinner? Describe Skinner’s viewpoint with regard to private events and free will. Describe the influence that Skinner had on psychology and more widely outside of academia. (pp. 10-11)
- B.F. Skinner was a young psychologist at Harvard and emerged as a central figure in behaviourism. Philosophy of radical behaviourism
- He redefined internal, mental events as private events and did not think it needed to be given special attention. He believed that these events were to hard to study
- He believed that specific outcomes are due to specific response that is receives (ex. Repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes, and no respond with negative outcomes.)
- Behaviour is determined in predictable ways by lawful principles, and people are controlled by their environment, which let him to conclude that free will is an illusion
- Skinner was ranked as one of the top psychologists of his time as behaviourism flourished. He was a house hold name as he wrote in journals and magazines and was on television for his ideas and ideologies
44
Describe humanistic psychology, and briefly discuss its contribution to psychology. (pp. 11-13)
- Humanism is a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth
- Humanistic psychology takes into account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth, people have basis needs to continue to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potential
- Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow argues that behaviour is primarily governed by individuals sense of self or self
- concept, which animals lack
45
What are six contemporary theoretical perspectives within psychology?
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Behavioural
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
Cognitive
Biological
Evolutionary
```
46
Behavioural (1913-present)
Contributors:
John Watson
Ivan Pavlov
B.F. Skinner
Subject Matter and Basic Premise:
- Effects of environment on the overt behaviour of humans and animals
- Only observable events(stimulus response relationships) can be studied automatically
47
Psychoanalytic (1900-present)
Contributors:
Sigmund Freud
Carl Jung
Alfred Adler
Subject Matter and Basic Premise:
- Unconscious determinants of behaviour
- Unconscious motives and experiences in early 4
childhood govern personality and mental disorders
48
Humanistic (1950s-present)
Contributors:
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Subject Matter and Basic Premise:
- Unique aspects of human experience
- Humans are free, rational beings with the potential for personal growth, and they are fundamentally different from animals
49
Cognitive (1950s-presents)
```
Contributors:
Jean Piaget
Noam Chomsky
Herbert Simon
Subject Matter and Basic Premise:
- Thoughts; mental process
- Human Behaviour cannot be fully understood without examining how people acquire, store and process information
```
50
Biological (1950s-present)
```
Contributors:
James Olds
RogerSperry
David Hubel
Torsten Wiesel
```
Subject Matter and Basic Premise:
- physiological basis of behaviour in humans and animals
- an organism’s functioning can be explained in terms of the bodily structures and biochemical processes that underlinebehaviour
51
Evolutionary(1980s-presents)
```
Contributors:
David Buss
Martin Daly
Margo Wilson
Leda Cosmides
John Tooby
```
Subject Matter and Basic Premise:
- Evolutionary basis of behaviour in humans and animals
- Behaviour patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems; natural selection favours behaviours that enhance reproductive success
52
Discuss how psychology developed in Canada, fromthe first departments to the establishment of the Canadian Psychological Association. (pp. 13-16)
- the first experimental psychology lab was established in Canada at the University of Toronto in 1891 by James Baldwin
- Started off as teaching in philosophy and then branched out on its own into psychology
- John Baird as the first Canadian psychologist to serve as the president of the American Psychological association
- The Canadian Psychological Association was formed in 1939 and published ‘Canadian Psychology’ in 1992 which established the scientific area of psychology in Canada
- Women have made a rise in psychology field over the years
53
Why has Western psychology had scant interest in other cultures? Why has this begun to change? (pp. 18, 20)
- First, Cross-cultural research was costly, difficult and time-consuming, was easier to us the white males that were students
- Second, psychologists worried that cultural comparisons may inadvertently fosterstereotypes of various groups, many that have already had a long history of being victimized
- Third, ethnocentrism would contribute to Western psychologists’ lack of interest 5
in other culture
- Ethnocentrism: the tendency to view one’s own group as superior to others and as the standard for judging the worth of foreign ways
- Cross-culture psychology has become more popular because of things like that civil rights, women’s, and gay rights movements
- As well two recent trends have spiked interest as trade and communication with foreign countries has risen, and ethnic makeup of the Western world has become increasingly diverse
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the seven major research areas in modern psychology
| DSEPC-PP
Developmental Psychology, Social Psychology, Experimental Psychology, Physiological Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Personality, and Psychometrics.
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Developmental Psychology(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- looks at human development across the life span. Development psychology once focused primarily on child development but today devotes a great deal of research to adolescence, adulthood, and old age
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Social Psychology(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- focused on interpersonal behaviour and the role of social forces in governing behaviour. Typical topics include attitude formation, attitude change, prejudice, conformity, attraction, aggression, intimate relationships, and behaviour in groups
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Experimental Psychology(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- encompasses the traditional core of topics that psychology focused on heavily in its first half-century as a science: sensation, perception, learning, conditioning, motivation, and emotion. The name experimental psychology is somewhat misleading, as this is not the only area in which experiments are done. Psychologists working in all the areas listed here conduct experiments
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Physiological Psychology(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- examines the influence of genetic factors on behaviour and the role of the brain, nervous system, endocrine system, and bodily chemicals in the regulation of behaviour
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Cognitive Psychology(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- focuses on ‘higher’ mental processes, such as memory, reasoning, information processing, language, problem solving, decision making, and creativity
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Personality(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- is interested in describing and understanding individuals’ consistency in behaviour, which represents their personality. This area of interest is also concerned with the factors that shape personality and with personality assessment
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Psychometrics(the seven major research areas in modern psychology)
- is concerned with the measurements of behaviour and capacities, usually thought the development of psychological tests. Psychometrics is involved with the design of tests to assess personality, intelligence, and a wide range of abilities. It is also concerned with the development of new techniques for statistical analysis
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the four professional specialties within applied psychology(CCEsIo)
Clinical, Counselling, Education & School, Industrial & Organizational Psychology
- share some of the same interests, but they are different professions with different types of training
- psychiatrists are physicians who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders, whereas clinical psychologists take a nonmedical approach to psychological problems
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Clinical Psychology(the four professional specialties within applied psychology)
Clinical psychologists are concerned with the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of individuals with psychological disorders, as well as treatment of less severe behavioural and emotional problems. Principles activities include interviewing clients, psychological testing, and providing group or individual psychotherapy
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Counselling Psychology(the four professional specialties within applied psychology)
Counselling psychology overlaps with clinical psychology in that specialists in both areas engage in similar activities – interviewing, testing, and providing therapy. However, counselling psychologists usually works with a somewhat different clientele, aiding people struggling with everyday practical problems of moderate severity. Thus, they often specialize in family, marital, or career counselling
65
Education and School Psychology(the four professional specialties within applied psychology)
Educational psychologists work to improve curriculum design, achievement testing, teacher training, and other aspects of the educational process. School psychologists usually work in elementary or secondary schools, where they test and counsel children having difficulties in school and aid parents and teachers in solving school-related problems
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Industrial and Organizational Psychology(the four professional specialties within applied psychology)
Psychologists in this area perform a wide variety of tasks in the world of business and industry. These tasks include running human resources departments, working to improve staff morale and attitudes, striving to increase job satisfaction and productivity, examining organizational structures and procedures, and making recommendations for improvements
67
Define what is meant by multifactorial causation of behaviour. (p. 29)
- Behaviour is determined by multiple cause: behaviour is governed by a complex network of interacting factors, if we expect to understand behaviour, we have to take into account multiple determinants
- Behaviour is shaped by cultural heritage: people’s cultural backgrounds exert considerable influence over their behaviour
- Hereditary and environment jointly influence behaviour: genetics and environment jointly influence an individual’s intelligence, temperament, personality and susceptibility to many psychological disorders
- People’s experience of the world is highly subjective: people actively process incoming stimulation, selectively focusing on some aspects of that stimulation while ignoring others
68
Discuss three important considerations in designing a program to encourage adequate studying. (pp. 33-34)
- set up a schedule for studying
- find a place to study where you can concentrate
- reward your studying
69
Describe the SQ3R method. What makes it so effective? (pp. 34-35)
- Includes 5 steps: survey, question, read, recite and review
- Survey: Glance over the topic headings in the chapter, helps organize information
- Question: Go through questions one section at a time, ask yourself questions on the topic
- Read: Read the specific section and re read the section until you are able to answer the question
- Recite: Recite the answer out loud in your own words. Don’t move on until you understand the main ideas of the section, go on to the next section and repeat step 2 through 4
- Review: After completing the entire chapter refresh your memory by going over the key points. Try to answer the questions without using your books or notes. Should help to see how the main ideas are related
70
Describe the effect of changing your answers on multiple-choice exams. (p.36)
General Tips from Weiten and McCann
- set up a mental schedule for progressing through the test
- Don’t waste time pondering difficult to answer questions
- Don’t read into questions – simple looking questions are what they appear to be
- If you complete all the questions and have time remaining, review the test
Multiple Choice Test tips
- as you read the stem of each question, anticipate the answer
- always read each question completely
- learn how to quickly eliminate options that are highly implausible
- information relevant to one question is sometimes given away in another
- on items that have all of the above as an answer, if you know two of the options are correct, choose all of the above
- options that represent broad generalizations tend to be incorrect
71
Define critical thinking. Describe the skills exhibited by critical thinkers. (pp. 38-39)
- Critical thinking: the use of cognitive skills and strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome
- Understand and use the principles of scientific investigation: How can the effectiveness of punishment as a disciplinary procedure be determined
- apply the rules of formal and informal logic: if most people disapprove of sex sites on the internet, why are these sites so popular?
- carefully evaluate the quality of information : can I trust the claims made by this politician
- analyze arguments for the soundness of conclusions: does the rise in drug us mean that a stricter drug policy is needed?
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7 Major Themes that Characterize the Science of Psychology
Theme 1:Psychology is empirical.
It is important to understand the need to acquire knowledge through systematic observation rather than through intuition, common sense, or speculation. Understanding this concept will allow you to recognize the problems some psychologists have with such topics as extrasensory perception (ESP) or with psychoanalytic suppositions.
Theme 2: Psychology is theoretically diverse.
This is an important concept because many students of psychology expect “black and white” solutions to their questions about psychology. The fact is that, in many areas, one of several theoretical explanations can be correct.
Theme 3: Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.
Unless you accept this concept, it is all too easy to ridicule or disparage previous discoveries. For example, students often mock behaviourism in favour of cognitive psychology because a strict behaviouristic interpretation of the world “simply cannot be right.” Without understanding the context of behaviourism and its once dominant position in psychology, it is far too easy to be deprecating. Simply stated, no single theory can easily explain everything that is known about behaviour
Theme 4: Behaviour is determined by multiple causes.
It is common for introductory students to believe that there is a cause for a behaviour, rather than accepting that complex behaviours are more typically a function of multiple causation. The last 30 years have seen an increasing tendency for psychologists to accept this truism and to investigate several factors that might affect behaviour within the design of a single experiment.
Theme 5: Behaviour is shaped by cultural heritage.
Although a common definition of psychology is “the science that studies behaviour,” a more accurate perception is that, until recently, it has been largely the science of Caucasian male behaviour. Much of the early experimental psychological research was based on the findings derived from a restricted population: undergraduate students who were usually male.
Theme 6: Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour.
While this statement may seem obvious, there was, in previous years, a tendencyto believe that behaviour could be either 100% genetic or 100% environmental. For example, it used to be asked whether instinct could be described as completely genetic. Now it is recognized that all behaviours are a function of
both environmental and genetic factors.
Theme 7: People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.
Students of psychology often believe that their own interpretation of the world is the correct one and that everyone else either does or should interpret the world in this way. Only when one appreciates the need to overcome subjectivity can one really understand the research approaches highlighted in Chapter 2 of the text that are referred to throughout the course.
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Anecdotal evidence
Consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences.
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Case study
An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
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Confounding of variables
When two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.
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Control group
Consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.
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Correlation
When two variables are related to each other.
78
Correlation coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. Indicates (1) the direction (positive or negative) of the relationship and (2) how strongly the two variables are related.
79
Data collection techniques
Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements.
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Dependent variable
The variable that is thought to be affect by manipulation of the independent variable.
81
Descriptive statistics
Used to organize and summarize data.
82
Double-blind procedure
A research strategy in which neither the subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control group.
83
Experiment
A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.
84
Experimental group
Consists of subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable.
85
Experimenter bias
Occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
86
Extraneous variables
Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
87
Frequency distribution
An orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or a group of scores.
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Frequency polygon
A line figure used to present data from a frequency distribution.
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Hypothesis
A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
90
Independent variable
A condition or even that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.
91
Inferential statistics
Used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
92
Internet-mediated research
Studies in which data collection is done using the web.
93
Journal
A journal is a periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.
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Mean
The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution.
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Median
The score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores.
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Meta-analysis
A combination of the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of a variable’s effects.
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Mode
The most frequent score in a distribution.
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Naturalistic observation
A researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the research subjects or participants.
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Negatively skewed distribution
When scores pile up at the high end of a scale (negative skew refers to the direction in which the curve’s “tail” points).
100
Normal distribution
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which man human characteristics are dispersed in the population.
101
Operational definition
Describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable.
102
Participants or subjects
The people or animals whose behaviour is systemically observed in a study.
103
Percentile score
The percentage of people who score at or below a particular score
104
Placebo effects
Occur when participant’s expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment
105
Positively skewed distribution
When scores pile up at the low end of a scale
106
Random assignment
Random assignment of subjects occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition within the study
107
Reactivity
Occurs when a subject’s behaviour is altered by the presence of an observer.
108
Replication
The repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated
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Research methods
Consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies.
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Response set
A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.
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Sample
A collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study.
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Social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
113
Statistical significance
Said to exist when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance of very low.
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Statistics
The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data.
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Survey
Questionnaires or interviews used by researchers to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ behaviour.
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Standard deviation
An index of the amount of variability in a set of data.
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Theory
A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
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Variability
How much the scores in a data set vary from each other and the mean.
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Variables
Any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study.
120
Briefly identify and describe the three goals of the scientific enterprise. (pp. 44-45)
1. Measurement and description: Develop measurement techniques that make it possible to describe behaviour clearly and precisely.
2. Understanding and prediction: To understand and explain the reasons for the occurrence of events. Scientists make and test predictions called hypotheses.
3. Application and control: To apply research findings to practical findings. Once information is gathered and understood, you can exert more control over it.
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What are the five steps in scientific investigations? (pp. 46, 48)
1. Formulate a testable hypothesis.
2. Select the research method and design the study.
3. Collect the data.
4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions.
5. Report the findings
122
Define an operational definition, participants (or subjects), and data collection techniques. (pp. 44-45)
-An operational definition describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable.
-Participants or subjects are the persons or animals whose behaviour is systemically observed in a study.
-Key data collection techniques:
Direct observation: Observers are trained to watch and record behaviour as objectively and precisely as possible. They may use some instrumentation, such as a stopwatch or video recorder.
Questionnaire: Subjects are administered a series of written questions designed to obtain information about attitudes, opinions, and specific aspects about their behaviour.
Interview: A face-to-face dialogue is conducted to obtain information about specific aspects of a subject’s behaviour.
Psychological test: Subjects are administered a standardized measure to obtain a sample of their behaviour. Tests are usually used to assess mental abilities or personality traits.
Psychological recording: An instrument is used to monitor and record a specific physiological process in the subject. Examples include measures of blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tension, or brain activity.
Examination of archival records: The researcher analyzes existing institutional records, such as census, economic, medical, legal, educational, and business records.
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Describe two advantages of the scientific approach as it relates to the study of behaviour. (pp. 48-49)
- The first advantage is its clarity and precision. The scientific approach requires that people specify exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypotheses. The clarity and precision enhance communication about important ideas.
- The second advantage is its relative intolerance of error. Scientists are skeptical, they subject their ideas to empirical tests, and they scrutinize one another’s findings with a critical eye. They demand objective data and thorough documentation before they accept ideas.
124
Define an experiment. Define and give examples of the three types of variables (independent, dependent, and extraneous) that may be encountered in an experiment. (pp. 49, 51)
- Experiment: A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. The experiment allows researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships.
- Independent variable: A condition or event that an experimenter varies to see its impact on another variable. An example would be film violence (present or absent)
- Dependent variable: The variable that is thought to affected by manipulation of the independent variable. An example would be heart rateor blood pressure.
- Extraneous variable: Any other variable other than the independent variable that influences the dependent variable. An example would be the time of day the film is watched
125
Distinguish between experimental and control groups and explain their relationship in an experiment. (p. 50) (See also Unit 2 (Chapter 2) Conceptual Exercises: Variables and Designs.)
- The experimental group consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment regarding the independent variable.
- The control group consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group.
If the two groups are alike in all respects except for the variation created by the manipulation of the independent variable, any differences between the two groups on the dependent variable must be due to the manipulation of the independent variable. Researchers isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
126
Why is it sometimes advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as their own control? (p. 52) (See also Unit 2 (Chapter 2) Conceptual Exercises: Variables and Designs regarding between- and within-subjects design.)
The effects of the independent variable are evaluated by exposing the single group to two or different conditions – an experimental and controlled condition.
127
Explain the major advantages and disadvantages of the experimental method. (p. 53)
Advantages:
-Permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
Disadvantages:
- Experiments are often artificial, which can lead to doubts about the applicability of findings to everyday behaviour outside the experimental laboratory.
- The experimental method cannot be used to explore some research questions because of ethical concerns or practical realities.
128
Distinguish between the experimental and the descriptive/correlational research methods. Discuss three descriptive research methods (i.e., naturalistic observation, case studies, and surveys). (pp. 54-56)
Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to only describe patterns of behaviour and discover links or associations between variables.The researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study. The lack of control means these methods cannot be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
- Naturalistic observation: A researcher engages in careful observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the research subjects or participants. The behaviour can unfold naturally in its natural environment (the setting it would normally occur). The major strength of this method is that it allows researchers to study behaviour under conditions that are less artificial than experiments. It can also be used to study animal behaviour.
- Case studies: An in-depth investigation of an individual subject. Techniques include interviewing the subjects, interviewing people who are very close to the subject, examination of records, and psychological testing. Case studies are well suited for investigating certain phenomena, such as psychological disorders and neurological issues. They provide compelling real-life illustrations that bolster a hypothesis.
- Surveys: Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants behaviour. Surveys are often used to obtain information on aspects of behaviour that are difficult to observe directly. It is relatively easy to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large samples of participants.
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Explain the major advantages and disadvantages of descriptive/correlational research. What is the main disadvantage of descriptive/correlational research? (pp. 55-57)
- The foremost advantage is that they give researchers a way to explore questions that could not be examined with experimental procedures. Descriptive/correlational research broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists are able to study.
- The significant disadvantage of descriptive/correlational research is that investigators cannot control events to isolate cause-and-effect relationships. They cannot demonstrate conclusively that two variables are casually related.
130
Distinguish between a positive and a negative correlation. Explain how the size of a correlation coefficient relates to the strength of an association. (pp. 56-58)
- Positive correlation indicates that two variable co-vary in the same direction. The high scores on variable X are associated with high scores on variable Y and that low scores on variable X are associated with low scores on variable Y. For example, there is a positive correlation between high school GPA and subsequent university GPA. That is, people who do well in high school tend to do well in university and vice versa.
- Negative correlation indicates that two variable co-vary in the opposite direction. The people who score high on variable X tend to score low on variable Y, whereas those who score low on X tend to score high on Y. For example, in most university courses, there is a negative correlation between how frequently students are absent and how well they perform on exams. Students who have a high number of absences tend to get low exam scores.
- Whereas the positive or negative sign indicates the direction of an association, the size of the coefficient indicates the strength of an association between two variables. The strength of a correlation depends only on the size of the coefficient.
131
Explain how a correlation relates to prediction and causation. Provide and recognize original examples of two variables that are positively or negatively correlated but that are not causally related. (pp. 63-64)
As a correlation increases in strength (gets close to either -1.00 or +1.00), the ability to predict on variable based on knowledge of the other variable increases. Correlation is not equivalent to causation. If variable X and Y are correlated, does X cause Y or does Y cause X, or does some hidden third variable Z account for the changes in both X and Y. A correlation alone does not provide the answer. For example, there is a substantial positive correlation between the size of a child’s feet and the size of their vocabulary. Increases in foot size do not cause increases
in vocabulary size, and vocabulary size does not increase the child’s foot size. Instead, they are both caused by a third variable: an increase in the child’s age.
132
Describe the importance of replication in scientific research. (pp. 65-66)
Replication helps science identify and purge incorrect findings; however, the replication process sometimes leads to contradictory results.
133
Describe the four common flaws in research: sampling bias, placebo effects, distortions in self-report data, and experimenter bias. (pp. 65-69)
- Sampling bias: When a sample if not representative of the population from which it was drawn. When the sample is not representative, generalizations about the population may be inaccurate.
- Placebo effects: Occur when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
- Distortions in self-report data: One of the most problematic of these distortions is the social desirability bias, which is the tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself. Subjects influenced by this bias work overtime trying to create a favourable impression.
- Experimenter bias: Occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
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What is the double-blind procedure? (pp. 64-65)
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. The double-blind procedure keeps the experimenter in the dark as well. Someone who isn’t directly involved with the subject keeps track of who is which group.
135
Discuss the controversy regarding the use of deception in psychological research. (p. 69)
Psychologists assert that deception is only a nice word for lying, which they see are inherently immoral. It is also argued that by deceiving unsuspecting participants, psychologists may undermine many individuals trust in others. They also point out that many deceptive studies produce distress for participants who were not warned about that possibility. Subjects may experience stress or feel foolish when the true nature of the study is explained.
A controversial study includes the “Monster Study” where normal speaking children were labelled stutters and “belittled” every time they showed a speech imperfection, to test a theory about the psychological origins of stuttering.
136
Discuss how Canada applies ethical guidelines to the use of animals as research subjects. (pp. 73-75)
Every effort must be made to minimize the discomfort felt by such participants to ensure that animals will be not used unless there is a strong expectation that the
results will benefit both human and animals. Additional guidelines regarding the treatment of animals have been developed by the Canadian Council of Animal Care.
137
Explain how Chapter 2 highlights two of the Weiten and McCann (2013) text’s unifying themes. (p. 76)
The entire chapter is testimonial to the idea that psychology is empirical. The discussion of methodological flaws in research provides numerous examples of how people’s experience of the world can be highly subjective.
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Describe the standard organization of a published journal article. (p. 77)
- Abstract: A concise summary at the beginning of the article.
- Introduction: Presents an overview of the problem studied in the research.
- Method: Provides a thorough description of the search methods used in the study.
- Results: Data obtained in the study are reported in the results section.
- References: A list of bibliographical references for any studies cited.
139
Define anecdotal evidence. Describe the perils of using anecdotal evidence in the decision-making process. (pp. 80-81)
Anecdotal evidence consists of personal stories about specific incidents and experiences. It resembles only a single case study. To draw general conclusions, you need a systemic series of case studies, so that you can look for threads of consistency. It is like self-report data, which can be distorted for a variety of reasons, such as people’s tendency to give socially approved information about themselves.
