Quiz 1 Flashcards
(171 cards)
1
Q
Theory
A
A body of thoughtfully tested and verified explanations for observations of the natural world- often incorporate conclusions from a variety of scientific fields
- does not imply lack of certainty; is cross-referenced with many phenomena- building greater certainty through modification rather than rejection
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World view
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A conceptual framework of ideas
3
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The theory of biological evolution
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All life shares common ancestry- linked by lines of dissent and has arisen from previous forms; processes of biological evolution that change populations of species over time and create new species (diversity)
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Evolution
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a connection of interconnected ideas
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microevolution
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evolutionary change that occurs within a species
- ex. Tomcod fish in Hudson River have evolved to withstand the toxic PCBs in their food source (relatively short period of time)
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macroevolution
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evolutionary change that results in the origin of a new species
- ex. Tomcod type of ray-fish - all have a common ancestor and larger changes as result of many microevolutionary steps
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Evolution of species
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evolution of fish species from a common ancestor over a long period of time
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Biological Evolution
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the change in heritable traits of a population over successive generations
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elements of biological evolutions
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change, heritable traits, population, successive generations
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Change in population
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Evolution= changes at the level of a population: “What portion of the population holds this trait?”
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change in a heritable trait
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change as a result of biological evolution; change is genetically sound/heritable
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successive generations
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change in population over generations; requires time
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Natural selection
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only evolutionary process that leads to adaptive evolution -> organisms evolve to be better suited for their environment as advantageous traits become predominant over time
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Adaptation
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a heritable trait favored by natural selection because it provides some function that helps the animal survive and reproduce in its environment
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Elements of evolution by natural selection
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VISTA Variation Inheritance Selection Time Adaptation
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Variation + Inheritance
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random mutation produces variation of a gene that is passed on/heritable
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Selection
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selective pressure and differential reproduction; environmental pressures cause individuals with a particular variation to have an advantage- making them better able to survive and reproduce
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Selective pressure
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external factors that contribute to the selection of which individuals have an increased success of surviving and reproducing offspring
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differential reproduction
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When reproductive success is not equal in a population (effect of selective pressures)
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Time
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Over time, advantageous traits of generations get passed to greater and greater numbers of offspring; over time, the population changes; strength of advantage determines speed at which population changes
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Adaptation
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overtime traits become more common, resulting in a population better suited to its environment
22
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mutation is..
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random
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natural selection is..
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not random- favors the mutations beneficial to the individuals
24
Q
How is Natural selection limited
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can only choose between the population’s existing genetic variations and whatever new genes arise through mutations
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genetic makeup of a population
changes over generations, so the majority of individuals are well-suited to survive/ reproduce in their environment
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Phylogeny
Evolutionary history and relationships between groups of animals
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when did a common ancestor of all living organisms line
4 billion yrs ago
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Evolutionary tree
visual representation of evolutionary history of lines of dissent
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more recent common acestor=
more closely related groups of animals
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Family tree does not equal phylogenetic tree why?
family tree means relationship between individuals; phylogenetic tree means relationship between different types of animals
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Node
point in history where different animals shared a common ancestor on tree
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common ancestor
a past specific type of animal, not an individual
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Taxon (plural taxa)
a groups of animals given an officiation name of classification
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creation of taxa
at some point, the population of the node diverged- taking many generations undergoing many evolutionary changes to become separate taxa
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Phylogenetic line
representative of the multiple generations it took to become separate taxon
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root
ancestor that all lineages on the tree share
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Determining which animals share the most recent common ancestor
whichever node is closest to the present time is the most recent common ancestor
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rotation of branches around a node
doesn't change evolutionary relationship
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time direction
root to tip; present taxa at tips
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hashmarks
characteristics change acquired between common ancestor and taxon/a
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common characteristics
common ancestor
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most common charicterisitcs
earliest common ancestor
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Clade
a group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor
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clade on a tree
includes node representing common ancestor plus all taxa that branch from it
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being nested
a clade within a clade is nested
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levels of classification (biggest to smallest)
superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe
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method for giving taxa names of classification
based on evolutionary relationships (share a more recent common ancestor from in -> out)
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pruned tree
a tree representing the same evolutionary relationships with a subset of taxa from the original tree
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Homologous characters
similar characters shared by two groups of animals because their common ancestor has the trait
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Analogous characters
two types of animals have a similar characteristic that is not due to a common ancestry -> evolved independently in two different lineages due to similar selective pressures
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convergent evolution
evolution of analogous traits => both lineages "converged" on the same adaptation separately
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three domains of life
Bacteria, Eukarya, Archaea
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Bacteria and Archaea domains
single-celled organisms, DNA not in membrane-bound nucleus
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what are archaea best known for
living in extreme habitats (extremely hot, cold, acidic, alkaline, salty, deep) but can live in moderate areas too like humans
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Eukarya (eukaryotic organisms)
DNA within membrane-bound nucleus in the cell; plants, fungi, animals
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Autotrophs
make their own food, ie, plants (use CO2 as food and sunlight as energy)
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Heterotrophs
consume other organisms for energy => Fungi and Animas
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Absorptive heterotrophs
Fungi => secrete digestive enzymes outside of the body, then consume digested nutrients (on dead animals/plants)
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ingestive heterotrophs
Animals => bring food inside the body then digest it
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Animals
a eukaryotic heterotroph that ingests food
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Estimate animal first appearance
580 million years ago (fossil record) to 1.2 billion yrs ago (molecular record)
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Metazoa
the clade of the common ancestor of all animals and its descendants (every animal ever)
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Eumetazoa
clade nested within Metazoa of animals whose cells form tissue => all animals except sponges are composed of true tissue
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Body plan
the design/ architecture of closely related animals exhibiting a group of distinctive characteristics which defines them as a group structurally and functionally
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Features of phylum's body plan
body symmetry, presence or absence of true tissue, type of support, organization of nervous system, pattern of development
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Phylum
group of taxa in a clade with a unique body plan
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tasks of staying alive
getting nutrients, gas exchange, excretion
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Nutrients
substances used for energy and to build structures required to sustain life (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids)
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Feeling strategy
how do animals obtain food and ingest it
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chemical digestions
carbohydrates->simple sugars Lipids->fatty acids proteins->Amino acids
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digested nutrients
small chemical subunits of nutrients
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distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body
cite of chemical digestion -> all cells of the body
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elimination of indigestables
how they are eliminated
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gas exchange
Animals need O2 from the surrounding environment and to get rid of metabolically produced CO2 from creating energy
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Excretion of nitrogenous waste
"Excretion" = removal of nitrogenous waste "nitrogenous waste" = excess amino acids converted into other nitrogen-containing molecules
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Phylum porifera
sponges
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porifera
"pore-bearer"
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how many species of sponge
9,000
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sponge environments
mostly restricted to marine environments => reefs, bottom surface of sea, shoreline; few species inhabit freshwater => lakes, rivers, streams, and bogs attached to submerged rocks, logs, sticks, or vegetation
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sponge level of orginization
multicellular (like all animals); specialized cells, but their cells are not organized into true tissue (metazoa, noy Eu)
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symmetry
the regular arrangement of body structures relative to the axis of the body; if animals can be split along one plane so that the resulting halves are like one another, the animal has symmetry
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asymmetry
no plane of symmetry
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sponge symmetry
For the most part, sponges are asymmetric
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sponge shape and support categories
spongin and spicules
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spongin
flexible fibers composed of protein 'collagen' secreted by special cells of the sponge forming a network of flexibility and support in mesohyl
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spicules
mineralized components of the skeleton, secreted by specialized cells; composed of silica or calcium carbonate; are various shapes
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sponges with only spongin vs spongin and spicules
only spongin = soft and flexible
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sponge nervous system
no neurons, no nervous system
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morphology of sponge
cylinder with body wall and large central cavity
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Body wall of sponge
three layers; inner, middle, outter
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inner layer of body wall
single layer of cells called choanocytes (ko-ann-o-sites)
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middle layer of body wall
a gel-like non-living substance composed primarily of collagen and secreted by sponge cells called mesohyl; some cells move through it
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Outer layer of body wall
single layer of cells called pinacocytes (pin-a-co-cytes)
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Pinacocytes
thin, tightly jointed cells forming outside of sponge- like skin
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choanocytes
play a significant role in getting nutrients
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sponge pores
openings in body wall formed by another type of specialized cell that allows water to flow through a canal and into central cavity
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Amoebocyte
specialized cell capable of movement through mesohyl
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Aquiferous system/ canal system
system of canals through which water flows as it passes through the sponge's body
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sessile
attached to surface/ doesn't move around
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effect of sessile nature on sponges
Rely on water flow to bring them nutrients and rid them of waste
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osculum
common opening through which water leaves sponge, carrying waste and CO2
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gas exchange in sponges
direct diffusion
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diffusion
the net, passive movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration (down its concentration gradient)
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how is diffusion possible
Each cell of the body needs a constant supply of O2 to convert energy in food to ATP to live; cell's constant use of O2 means there is always a higher concentration in the surrounding water of O2 than inside the cell
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Direct diffusion gas exchange
O2 diffuses into, and CO2 diffuses out of each cell directly => sponges are only organized at the cellular level, meaning no tissue, meaning no specialized gas exchange chamber, meaning every cell for themselves
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what property of diffusion constrains sponge body wall
The process is slow, so each cell layer can only be one cell thick in order to survive
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Sponge structure that allows for obtaining nutrients
Choanocytes: single flagellum (thin, threadlike) that moves around in a whip-like fashion surrounded, at one end, by a collar of microvilli (short, thin extensions)
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function of choanocytes
the beating of all of the choanocyte flagella creates the current of water flowing through the sponge, the microvilli collar traps the food particles suspended in the water
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suspension feeding
feeding strategy of grabbing food suspended in water
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Active suspension feeding
flow of water is created by the action of the choanocyte flagellum to obtain suspension feeding
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Songe distribution of trapped food to cells
amoebocyte picks up membrane-enclosed food and distributes it to other cells of the body by traveling through the mesohyl
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songne chemical digestion
inside each cell, including the choanocytes, the food particles are chemically (enzymatically) digested and products are used to build parts of the cell and ATP
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Elimination of undigested material
Indigestible material is expelled from the cell and leaves the sponge with water flowing out of the osculum
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Excretion by sponges
proteins => amino acids => excess amino acids => ammonium => ammonium diffuses from higher concentration (inside cell) to lower concentration (surrounding water)
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number of species of Cnidaria
11,000 20 are freshwater
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fossil history of cnidaria
700 million yrs (very important to life on earth today)
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organizational level of body plan in cnidaria
tissue; morphologically and developmentally similar cells that are organized for specific function
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Animal development
the formation of germ layers becoming tissue layers
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fertilization
egg + sperm
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cleavage
the replication and division of the fertilized egg to create more cells
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blastula
hollow ball of cells produced by cleavage; one layer of cells surrounding a fluid-filled space; cells of blastula = building blocks of animal (each has same DNA as fertilized egg)
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Gastrulation
formation of layers; cells at one end of blastula fold inwards, producing a 2-layered embryo; these two sheets = 'germ layers'
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germ layers cnidaria develop from
"ectoderm" is the outer germ layer; "endoderm" is the inner germ layer
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Dipolblastic
animals that develop from two germ layers; each germ layer gives ride to specific layers of the body
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two body forms of cnidaria
Polyp and medusa
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polyp
cylinder-like body with mouth pointing up and tentacles waving above; immobile (sessile)
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Medusa
bell-shaped body with mouth pointing down and tentacles hanging below; free swimming/floating; rely on current to carry them
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cnidaria symmetry
radial
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radial symmetry
body parts arranged around the central axis; can be bisected along the axis in more than one plane to produce identical halves
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body wall composition
inner, outer, and middle layers of TISSUE
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inner tissue layer
gastrodermis; developed from endoderm (single layer)
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middle tissue layer
mesoglea; space between layers; non-living, gelatinous
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outer tissue layer
epidermis; developed from ectoderm germ layer
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inner space of body
gastrovascular cavity
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gastrovascular cavity
opening serves as both mouth an anus; in most, surrounded by tentacles
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alternation forms
some cnidaria alternate from one form to another (polyp, medusa) at different stages of their lifecycle => live different lifestyles in different forms => can exploit different environments => adults/larva don't compete => not all cnidaria alternate between polyp/medusa
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organization of cnidarian nervous system
diffuse, non centralized
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diffuse nervous system
lack a true brain; have a system of separate, individual neurons throughout the body; "nerve net"
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attributes of a non centralized nerve system
stimulation of a sensory cell on one side of the body = signal spreading over entire body => frequency of stimulation determines how much of body responds; more frequent = more surface area of body affected
-- are capable of complex movement and behavior
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cnidarian muscles
antagonist muscles
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antagonist muscles
contraction of one muscle + relaxation of its opposition
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muscles in cnidaria
longitudinal and circular
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longitudinal muscles
run lengthwise in the cnidaria
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circular muscles
run around the cnidaria
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cnidarian skeleton
hydrostatic skeleton
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hydrostatic skeleton
fluid support system; any change in pressure applied to an enclosed, noncompressible (volume of liquid does not change if pressure is applied to it) fluid is transmitted to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel
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hydrostatic skeleton in an animal
compartment if fluid-filled intestinal space, closed, or can be closed to the outside => muscles, stimulated by nerves, in walls of this space apply pressure to fluid => for compartment to change shape in different direction, another set of muscles, oriented in a different direction, is necessary
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Hydrostatic skeleton used by anemone
to maintain its shape/structure through support while also producing a change in shape
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requirements for a hydrostatic skeleton
1.) Enclosed cavity containing a substance (usually water) that can not be compressed 2.) The volume of fluid in the cavity should remain constant while pressure is being applied. Therefore, the compartment must remain closed (1/2 achieved in anemone by gastrovascular cavity and ability to close mouth). 3.) The cavity is located between antagonistic muscles 4.) nerve cells to stimulate muscle to contract (cnidarians have both) 5.) the cavity must be surrounded by a flexible outer body membrane so that the outer body wall can deformed (change shape) (cnidarians outer body wall is flexible not rigid)
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Important feature of water
can not be compressed
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getting and ingesting food by anemone
Nematocysts is expelled to capture prey (or in self-defence) => Once captured, food is brought into mouth, then Gastrovascular cavity
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nematocyst
a barbed, venomous, coiled thread-like structure within the epidermis cells that enables the ability to capture prey/defend;
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chemical digestion in amnemone
gastrodermis, the inner layer of tissue on GVC, secretes enzymes that chemically break down nutrients
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distribution of digested nutrients in anemone
GVC branches to all parts of the body (including tentacle) => nutrient molecules transport to every cell in the body using these branches => aided by cilia (hairlike extensions from surface of gastrodermis cells moving rhythmically) => cells absorb digested nutrients from GVC (serves both digestive and circulatory purposes)
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type of digestive system in cnidaria (anemone ex)
incomplete
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incomplete digestive system
only one opening to GVC, serving as both the mouth and anus
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constraint put on cnidaria by incomplete digestive systems
eat a lot at once, digest, then expel => no continuous eating
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gas exchange in cnidaria
direct diffusion => no specific structure for gas exchange
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excretion of waste in cnidaria
proteins => amino acids => nitrogenous waste => ammonia
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siymiosis
interaction between two living organisms living in close proximity
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zooxanthellae
single=celled, photosynthetic, marine algae
160
relationship between zooxanthellae and cnidaria
symbiotic; zooxanthellae live on cnidarian tissue; algae transfer photosynthetically-derived, energy-rich molecules to cnidarian host, in return for access to nitrogen, phosphorous, and other cnidarian metabolism-driven nutrients and protection from the environment
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mutualistic, symbiotic relationship between Cnidarian and Zooxanthellae
Cnidaria get their color from zooxanthellae, and many rely on zooxanthellae for nutrients; some receive 70-90% of nutrition from zooxanthellae products
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coral reefs
hard corals, types of coral that builds reef; extract calcium from surrounding seawater to create hardened skeleton for protection and growth => created by millions of polyps forming large calcium carbonate structures => home for hundreds of thousands, if not millions of other species
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coral polyp
individual cnidarian creating coral
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coral colony
many polyps of the same species hardening together
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coral reef
groups of hardened coral species
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Difference between coral polyp and anemone
only difference is that anemone don't create a hardened skeleton
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environmental conditions required by reefs
shallow waters (30-100 ft), sunlit waters => reef-building corals require warm weather water conditions to survive => optimally between 73-90 degrees Fahrenheit for all coral => require clear water (sediment can cloud waters, wastewater discharge near reef can contain too many nutrients, causing seaweed to overgrow reef => reefs occur in less than 1% of ocean
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bleached coral
Not dead- but expulsion of Zooxanthellae (because they go overboard and start producing toxins) leaves the coral in a nutrient debt and can't survive for much longer (can give color back and be saved, but needs immediate action)
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climate change
The warming of the earth from increased trapped radiation due to the reverb caused by an excess amount of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere, which are created by the burning of fossil fuel
