Quiz 2 - Digestive system Flashcards
Quiz Thursday
1
Q
Mechanical breakdown of foods
2 types:
* Mechanical: Breaks down large pieces of food into smaller ones, but doesnt change chemical composition
* Chemical: uses enzymes to breakdown food particles by changing them into simpler chemicals
A
Digestion
2
Q
Organs of system that carry out mechanical & chemical digestion, as well as ingestion, propulsion, absorption, & defication
Consists of alimentary canal & accessory organs
A
Digestive system
3
Q
1 of 2 portions of the digestive system that consists of organs that extens from mouth to anus
* Food passageway
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine, & anal canal
A
Alimentary Canal
4
Q
1 of 2 portions of the digestive system that consists of organs that empty serections into alimentary canal
* Food does not pass through
Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, & pancreas
A
Accessory Organs
5
Q
List the 4 layers of the walls that make up the alimentary canal in order from inner most to outer most:
A
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis (external)
- Serosa
6
Q
Inner most layer of the alimentary canal that directly surrounds the lumen (passageway)
* Made up of Epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle
Folded in some areas to increase surface area
Absorbs dietary nutrients, secretes mucous & enzymes, & provides protection
A
Mucosa
7
Q
Layer of the alimentary canal made of connective tissue that contain blood & lymphatic vessels, nerves, & glands
Nourishes cells, transports absorbed food molecules
A
Submucosa
8
Q
Muscle tissue that contain circular & lymphatic vessels, nerves, & glands
Made up of Smooth muscle cells in circular and longitudinal groups
Moves tube & food materials
A
Muscularis (external)
9
Q
Outer layer of serous fluid that eliminates friction
Made up of Epithelium, connective tissue
Visceral peritoneum of organs w/in
Function: Protection, lubrication
A
Serosa
10
Q
Describe the 2 types of movements of the Alimentary Canal Wall listed below:
Mixing movements
Propelling movements
A
Mixing movements: Muscles contract rhythmically
* Moves materials in multiple directions
* Ex: Segmentation in small intestine, churning in stomach
Propelling movements: Moves material in one direction
* Peristalsis: Ring of contraction progress down tube; proper food particles down tract in wavelike motion
11
Q
Fill in the blank
Branches of (x) & (x) division of autonomic nervous system extensively innervate the alimentary canal
A) Sympathetic & parasympathetic
B) Nerves & arteries
C) Submucosal plexus & myenteric plexus
A
A) Sympathetic & parasympathetic
Branches of Sympathetic & parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system extensively innervate the alimentary canal
12
Q
What is the difference between submucosal plexus & myenteric plexus?
A
Submucosal plexus: Controls secretions
Myenteric plexus: Controls GI motility
13
Q
What 2 impulses have autonomic control over the digestive system?
A
Parasympathetic Impulses: Increase activity in digestive system
Sympathetic Impulses: Inhibit digestive actions (secretion & motility)
14
Q
Secrete chemical messengers (hormones) to regulate GI organs & processes
A
Enteroendocrine cells
15
Q
First part of the alimentary canal that ingests food
* Mastication: Mechanical breakdown of food mixed w/ saliva
Functions as organ of speech & sensory receptory
Surrounded by lips, cheeks, tongue, & palate
* Includes oral cavity & vesibules
A
Mouth
16
Q
Form lateral walls of the mouth
Contain muscles for facial expression & chewing
Have inner lining of stratified squamous epithelium (moist)
A
Cheeks
17
Q
Highly mobile structure that surrounds mouth opening
Sensory receptors judge of temp & texture of food
Boundry between skin & mucous membrane inside mouth
A
Lips
18
Q
Thick, muscular organ that occupies floor of mouth & nearly fills oral cavity when mouth is closed
Lingual Frenulum: Connects to floor of mouth
Papillae: Projections that move food, & contain taste buds
Lingual Tonsils: Lymphatic tissue masses on root of tongue
A
Tongue
19
Q
Consists of an anterior portion (hard palate) & posterior portion (soft palate)
Hard (bony) Palate: Consits of palatine process of maxillae & palatine bone
Soft Palate: Consists of muscular arch that ends in uvula
A
Palate
20
Q
Describe the tonsils listed below:
Palatine Tonsilis
Pharyngeal tonsils (Adenoids)
A
Palatine Tonsilis: Lymphatic masses on side on tongue
Pharyngeal tonsils (Adenoids): Masses on lympahtic tissue in postieror wall of pharynx
21
Q
Breaks down food - Mechanical digestion
* Chewing mixes food w/ enzymes
* Hardest part of the body that is not part of the skeletal system
20 primary (Deciduous), & 32 secondary (adult)
Types:
* Central incisors, lateral incisors
* Canines (cuspids), premoloar (bicuspids)
* First, second, & third molars
A
Teeth
22
Q
Describe the following in regads to teeth:
Incisors
Canines
Molars / Premolars
Enamel
Dentin
Periodontal ligament
A
Incisors: Biting
Canines: Grasping / Tearing
Molars & premolars: Grinding
Enamel: Covers crown
Dentin: Makes up most teeth & surround pulp cavity
Periodontal ligament: Holds root in place along w/ cementum
23
Q
Secrete saliva
* Dissolve food
Contains enzymes (chemiac digestion of carbs) & bicarb ions (Keep pH favorable from enzyme activity & protect teeth from acidic foods)
3 major types:
* Parotid glands
* Submandibular glands
* Sublingual glands
A
Salivary Glands
24
Q
What are the 3 major salivary glands?
A
Parotid glands: Large gland that secretes serous saliva w/ amylase
Submandibular glands: Floor of mouth; Serous + mucous
Sublingual glands: Under tongue; Mainly mucous
25
**Extends from nasal cavity to esophagus**
Cavity posterior to mouth
Pharynx
26
**Posterior to nasal cavity**
Air passageway
*Contain opening to auditory tubes*
Nasopharynx
27
Posterior to oral cavity
**Air & food passageway**
Oropharynx
28
Posterior to larynx
**Passageway to esophagus**
Laryngopharynx
29
**Tubular organ that extends from pharynx to stomach**
* *Muscular food passageway* (25cm)
* **Penetrates diaphram** through esophageal hiatus
*Contains mucous glands in submucosa*
* **Moistens & lubricates lining of inner walls w/ mucus**
Esophagus
30
**Fill in the blank**
**(x)** sphincter regulates food passage into stomach & closes to prevent regurgitation of food
A) Upper esophageal
B) Lower esophageal (cardiac)
C) Ileocecal
B) Lower esophageal (cardiac)
**Lower esophageal (cardiac)** sphincter regulates food passage into stomach & closes to prevent regurgitation of food
31
**J-shaped, pouch like organ located inferior to diaphram, in upper L portion of abd. cavity** (25-30cm)
* **Contains layers of smooth muscle**
*Recieves food from esophagus*
**Mixes food w/ gastric juice**
Initiates protein digestion
Has limited absorption
*Moves food into small intestine*
Stomach
32
Describe the following terms below related to gastric secretions:
Mucus
Pepsinogen
Pepsin
Gastric Lipase
Hydrochloric acid
Chemical Messenger
**Mucus:** Provides lubrication & protects the stomach lining
* **Secreted by mucous neck cells**
**Pepsinogen:** *Inactive form of pepsin*
* **Secreted by chief cells**
**Pepsin:** **Active enzyme that breaks down protiens into polypeptides**
* Form from pepsinogen in presence of HCL
**Gastric Lipase:** **Fat splitting enzymes**, found in small quantities
* Action inhibits low pH
**Hydrochloric acid:** Produced by parietal cells
* Required from absorption of vitamin B12
**Chemical Messenger:** substances (hormones & local messengers) that regulate digestive process
* **Secreted by enterendocrine cells**
33
What is the difference between Neural regulation & Hormonal regulation?
**Hormonal regulation:**
* **Somatostatin:** Inhibits HCl secretion
* **Gastrin:** Increases gastric juice secretion
* **Cholecystokinin (CCK):** Released by small intestine cell when proteins and fat enter the small intestine; decreases gastric motility
**Neural regulation:**
* *Sympathetic impulses decrease gastric activity*
* *Parasympathetic impulses increase gastric activity*; promote release of histamine, which stimulates gastric secretion
34
Sight, taste, smell, or thought of food triggers parasympathetic reflexes
Gastric juice is secreted in response
Cephalic Phase
35
**Food in stomach chemically and mechanically stimulates release of gastrin (stimulates secretion of gastric juice)**
Reflex responses also stimulate gastric juice secretion
Gastric phase
36
*Food enters the small intestine stimulating intestinal cells to release intestinal gastrin*
* Promotes the secretion of gastric juice from the stomach wall
**Primarily inhibits gastric juice secretion by sympathetic reflex and the hormone cholecystokinin responses**
Intestinal phase
37
What 4 substances are absorbed by the stomach?
Some **water**
Certain **salts**
Certain **lipid-soluble drugs**
Some **alcohol**
38
What is the term for *mixing of food in the stomach with gastric juice produces a semifluid paste* ?
Chyme
39
Which sphincter prevents backflow of chyme into esophagus?
A) Lower esophageal sphincter
B) Upper esophageal sphincter
C) Lower Ileocecal sphincter
D) Upper Ileocecal sphincter
A) Lower esophageal sphincter
40
**Endocrine gland, secreting insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose**
* **Exocrine gland of the digestive system**, *secreting digestive fluid called pancreatic juice*
Pancreas
41
What are the structures of the pancreas?
**Pancreatic acinar cells make up most of pancreas, and release pancreatic juice into tiny ducts** which lead to the pancreatic duct
**Pancreatic duct** (along with the common bile duct from the liver and gall bladder) **empties into the duodenum of the small intestine**
**Pancreatic duct and common bile duct join at dilated tube** *(hepatopancreatic ampulla - of Vater)*
**Hepatopancreatic sphincter** (of Oddi) surrounds ampulla; **controls movement of bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum**
42
**Describe the Components of pancreatic juice listed below:**
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic lipase
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase
Nucleases
**Pancreatic amylase:** Splits starch and glycogen into disaccharides
**Pancreatic lipase:** Breaks down triglycerides
**Trypsin:** Digests proteins & releases as inactive trypsinogen *(activated by enterokinase in small intestine)*
**Chymotrypsin:** Digest proteins & releases as inactive enzyme *(activated by trypsin)*
**Carboxypeptidase:** Digests proteins & releases as inactive enzyme *(activated by trypsin)*
**Nucleases:** Digests nucleic acids Bicarbonate ions
* Make pancreatic juice alkaline; buffer stomach acid
43
What 2 Hormones that help regulate the release of pancreatic juice?
**Secretin:**
* Stimulates pancreas to release pancreatic juice high in bicarbonate ions
**CCK:**
* Stimulates pancreas to release pancreatic juice high in enzymes
44
**Largest internal organ** *located in the upper-right abdominal quadrant beneath the diaphragm*
Reddish-brown organ
**Hepatic portal vein** *brings absorbed nutrients to hepatic sinusoids*
**Hepatic artery** *brings oxygen-rich blood, which mixes with oxygen-poor blood from portal vein*
Liver
45
What are some functions of the liver?
**Synthesizes lipoproteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol**
Synthesizes plasma proteins
*Stores glycogen, iron,* and **vitamins A, D, and B12**
**Removes toxins**, such as alcohol and certain drugs from the blood
**Oxidizes fatty acids**
Acts as blood reservoir
Role in digestion is to secrete bile
**Breaks down glycogen into glucose**
46
**Yellowish-green liquid that hepatic cells continuously secrete**
**Components include:**
* Water
* Salts
* Pigments
* Cholesterol
* Electrolytes
**Released under control of hormone cholecystokinin**
* *Stimulates contraction of gallbladder*
Bile
47
**Yellowing of skin, eye sclerae, mucous membranes**
**Caused by blockage of bile ducts:**
* Cirrhosis or hepatitis
* Rapid red blood cell destruction
Jaundice
48
**Cystic duct** (entry/exit duct) **merges with common hepatic duct to form common bile duct**
* Stores and concentrates bile
**Releases bile into duodenum of small intestine**
* *Hepatopancreatic ampulla*
* *Hepatopancreatic sphincter*
Gallbladder
49
What are some causes form gallstones?
Excess bile concentration
Excess cholesterol secretion by liver
Inflammation of the gallbladder
50
Bile salts help absorb what fat-soluable vitamins?
vitamins A, D, E, and K
51
**Tubular organ that extends from the pyloric sphincter to the beginning of the large intestine**
**Receives chyme from the stomach, and liver and pancreatic secretions**
Absorbs products of digestion
* Completes digestion of the nutrients in chyme
* Transports the remaining residue to the large intestine
**3 parts:**
* Duodenum
* Jejunum
* Ileum
Small intestine
52
**Describe the 3 parts or the small intestine:**
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
**Duodenum:** Shortest and most fixed portion of small intestine
**Jejunum:** Middle portion, thicker and more active than ileum
**Ileum:** Distal portion; contains Peyer’s patches (lymph nodules)
53
What are the 5 secretions of the small intestine?
**Mucus**
**Watery fluid**
**Enzymes:**
* **Peptidases:** Break down peptides into amino acids
* **Sucrase, maltase, lactase:** Break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
* **Lipase:** Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
**Chemical messengers:** Secretin and cholecystokinin
* Secreted by enteroendocrine cells scattered throughout mucosa of duodenum
**Antimicrobial substances:** Defend against certain bacteria
54
Increase the surface area for absorption
* **Small intestine is most important absorbing organ of alimentary canal**
Little absorbable material reaches the organ’s distal end
Villia
55
The small intestine carries which 2 movements?
**Peristalsis:** Wave-like pushing movements that *moves chyme into the small intestine*
**Segmentation:** Ring-like contractions that *move chyme back and forth (mixing movement)*
* Places chyme in contact with digestive enzymes in brush border and aids in absorption
56
Joins ileum of small intestine to cecum of large intestine, and helps regulate flow of chyme
Ileocecal sphincter
57
**At distal end, opens to outside of body through the anus** (1.5 m)
Absorbs some water and electrolytes
* *Reabsorbs and recycles water and digestive secretions*
**Forms and stores feces**
**4 Major parts:**
* Cecum
* Colon
* Rectum
* Anal canal
Large Intestines
58
Describe the 4 Major parts of the large instesine listed below:
**Cecum**
**Colon**
**Rectum**
**Anal canal**
**Cecum:** *Pouch, forms beginning of large intestine*
* **Appendix is attached to cecum**; lymph nodules in appendix function in the immune response
**Colon:** *Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid portions*
* *Contain hepatic (right colic) and splenic (left colic) flexures*
**Rectum:** *Extends from sigmoid colon to anal canal*
* Lies next to sacrum
**Anal canal:** *Last 2.5 to 4 cm of large intestine*
* Opens to outside as anus
* *Internal and external anal sphincters guard anus*
59
What are some functions of the large intestine?
Has little or no digestive function
**Contains tubular glands holding goblet cells**
Forms feces, and carries out defecation
***Secrete mucus (only significant secretion)***
**Houses intestinal flora**
* **Bacteria that breaks down contents (cellulose), and produce vitamins K, B12, thiamine**
Absorbs water (about 90% of water that enters it) and electrolytes
60
**Collection of cells & biochemicals that travel in lymphatic vessels**
* *Contains network of vessels that assist in circulating fluids*
* **Responds to non-self antigens**
Lymphatic system
61
List the lymphatic pathway in order:
1) Lymphatic capillaries
2) Afferent lymphatic vessel
3) Lymph nodes
4) Efferent Lymphatic vessels
5) Lymphatic trunks
6) Lymphatic collecting ducts
7) Subclavian veins in thorax
62
Walls similar to veins but thinner
**Contain semilunar valves to allow 1-way flow**
**Composed of 3 layers:**
* **Inner:** Endothelial lining
* **Middle:** Smooth muscle & elastic fiber
* **Outer:** Connective tissue
*Larger vessels lead to lymph nodes, then to larger lymphatic trunks*
Lymphatic vessels
63
**Unencapsulated lymphatic tissue** of digestive, resp, urinary, & reproductive tracts
*Tonsils & appendix composed of lymphatic nodules* (Compact masses of lymphatic tissue)
Peyer's patches are aggregates lymphatic nodules found in ileum (distal part of small intestine)
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)
64
List 3 lymphatic organs:
Encapsulated lymphatic tissue
**Spleen**
Lymph nodes
**Thymus**
**Bone marrow**
65
**Contain macrophages to engulf/destroy foregin substances, damaged cells & cellular debris**
* Contain lymphocytes to attack viruses, bacteria & parasite cells
*Located along lymphatic vessels*
* **Filter pathogens from lymph**
*Found in groups/chains along paths of larger lymphatic vessels through the body*
* Not found in Central Nervous System (CNS)
Lymph nodes
66
What are the primary functions of lymph nodes?
**Filter harmful particles away from lymph**
*Immune surveillance*
* **Monitor body fluids via macrophages & lymphocyte production**
Centers for lymphocyte production (like RBC)
*Lymphocytes attack pathogens in lymph nodes*
Macrophages engulfs & digests foreign substances, damaged cells & debris
67
Divided into lobules that **contain lymphocytes derived from progenitor cells in red bone marrow**
* Soft bilobed gland located in mediastinum
* Most are innactive *(Thymocytes)*
**T lymphocytes (T cells) leave thymus to provide immunity**
* **Thymosin:** *Hormone produced in thymus to stimulate T cell maturation*
thymus
68
**Largest lymphatic organ** that resembles larger lymph node
* **Located in upper L abd. cavity, inferior to diaphragm & posterior & lateral to stomach**
Contains venous sinuses filled w/ blood
* Filters blood
* Breaks down RBCs
**2 tissue types:**
* **White Pulp:** *Contains lymphocytes & macrophages*
* **Red Pulp:** *RBC & many macrophages*
Spleen
69
To prevent pathogen entry or destroy any pathogen that enters the body
Mechanisms:
* **Innate (Nonspecific) defense:** General defense, Protect against many types of pathogens
* **Adaptive (Specific) defense:** More specific & precise, targeting specific antigens, carried out by lymphocytes that recognize certain foreign molecules
Immunity
70
What is the difference between Innate Defense Species Resistant & Innate Defense Mechanical Barriers?
*Innate Defense* **Species Resistant:**
* Contains species resistent to diseases that affect other species
* Certain species lack recpetors, temp, or chemical enviorment for a particular pathogen
*Innate Defense* **Mechanical Barriers:**
* *Skin & mucous membranes* form barriers & prevent enterance of pathogens
* *Ex: As epidermis sloughs off, removes superficial bacteria; Ciliated epithelium in respiratory tract traps and sweeps away pathogens;Tears, saliva, and urine wash away microorganisms*
71
Produces local redness, swelling, heat, & pain
* **Redness d/t vasodilation**
* *Swelling results from increases capillary permeability and fluid entry into tissue spaces*
* Heat is derived from blood arriving from deep areas of body
* Pain is d/t stimulation of pain receptors
**White blood cells gather in area, and destroy pathogens by phagocytosis**
* *Inhibits spread of infection*
**Exudates (fluids) that contain fibrinogen and other clotting factors may form fibrin** network
Following control of infection, *phagocytes engulf and destroy dead cells*
* Cells that were lost are replaced by cell division
Innate Defenses: Inflammation
72
List some Major Actions of an Inflammation Response:
**Blood vessels dilate. Capillaries permeability increases & fluid leaks into tissue space**
*Tissues become red, swollen, warm, & painful*
**WBC invade region, Pus may form as WBC, bacteria cells & cellular debris accumulate**
**Tissue fluids containing clotting factors seep into the area**, clot containing fibrin may form
Fibroblasts arrive, connective tissue may form around injured tissue
*Phagocytes are active*, Bacteria, dead cells & other debris are removed
Cells divide, newly formed cells replace injured ones
73
**Enzymes in body fluids provide a chemical barrier to pathogens**
* Ex: Pepsin in gastric juice; lysozyme in tears destroy microorganisms
**Interferons block viral replication**, act against growth of tumors, stimulate phagocytosis
**Defensins are peptides produced by neutrophils and other granulocytes**
* Cripple microbes by making opening in cell membranes or walls
**Collectins are proteins that protect against many bacteria, yeast, and some viruses**
**Complement system:** *Group of inactive proteins in plasma and other body fluids that becomes activated by binding to surface of foreign cells*
* Once activated, begins a cascade of reactions that stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytosis, enhances phagocytosis, and causes cell lysis
Innate Defenses: Chemical Barriers
74
*Phagocytes in the blood vessels and the tissues of the spleen, liver, or bone marrow remove particles from blood*
**Most active cells are neutrophils & monocytes**
Chemicals from damaged tissue attract phagocytic cells to injury via chemotaxis
**Monocytes that leave the bloodstream become macrophages**, which can be free or fixed in tissues
**Mononuclear phagocytic system (reticuloendothelium)** consists of monocytes and macrophages of the body
Innate Defenses: Phagocytosis
75
Based on the ability to distinguish molecules that are part of the body (“self”) from “non-self”
* *Third line of defense*
**Antigens:** *Non-self molecules that can evoke an immune response*
*Carried out by lymphocytes and macrophages* that can recognize specific antigens
Adaptive (Specific) Defenses
76
Name two types of adaptive defenses:
**Cellular immune response** (performed by immune cells)
**Humoral immune response** (performed by antibodies)
77
Receptors on the surface of lymphocytes enable the cells to **recognize non-self antigens**
* **Lymphatic system responds to non-self antigens**
Most effective are large and complex molecules
Ex:
* Proteins
* Polysaccharides
* Glycoproteins
* Glycolipids
Antigens
78
Red bone marrow releases unspecialized lymphocyte precursors into blood
**Half of cells settle in thymus, specialize, and are then released (become T cells)**
**Other half of cells differentiate in red bone marrow, and are then released (become B cells)**
Lymphocyte (Orgins)
79
**Describe the 2 main types of lymphocytes listed below:**
T lymphocytes (T cells, thymus-derived lymphocytes)
B lymphocytes (B cells, B = Bursa of Fabricius in chickens)
**T lymphocytes (T cells, thymus-derived lymphocytes):**
* *Specialize in thymus*
* Make up 70 to 80% of circulating lymphocytes
* **Some settle in lymphatic organs, such as lymph nodes, thoracic duct, white pulp of spleen**
**B lymphocytes (B cells, B = Bursa of Fabricius in chickens):**
* After *release from bone marrow*
* Make up 20 to 30% of lymphocytes in blood
* **Abundant in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, intestinal lining**
80
**Describe the 4 types of Specialized T Cells listed below:**
Helper T cells (TH cells)
Cytotoxic T cells (TC cells)
Memory T cells (TM cells)
Regulatory T cells (TR cells)
**Helper T cells (TH cells):**
* Activate other cells by *secreting cytokines*
* *Stimulate B cells* to produce antibodies
* *Stimulate activity of cytotoxic T cells*
**Cytotoxic T cells (TC cells):**
* Attack virally infected, cancerous, or transplant cells
**Memory T cells (TM cells):**
* Provide future immune protection
**Regulatory T cells (TR cells):**
* *Suppress immune responses after defeat of pathogens*, which lowers chance of developing an autoimmune disease
81
What are the 5 steps in B cell antibody production?
1) Antigen-bearing agents enter tissue
2) Encounters an antigen that fits its antigen receptors
3) Either alone or in conjunction w/ helper T Cells, B cell is activated
4) Some newly formed cell differentiate to become plasma cells
5) Plasma cells synthesize & secrete antibodies
* Molecular structure is similar to the activated B cell’s antigen receptors
82
What are the 7 steps in T cell antibody production?
1) Antigen-bearing agents enter tissues
2) **Antigen-presenting cell**, such as a *macrophage, phagocytizes the antigen-bearing agent, and the macrophage’s lysosomes* **digest the agent.**
3) **Antigens from the digested antigen-bearing agents are displayed** on the membrane of the antigen-presenting cell.
4) **Helper T cell becomes activated** when it encounters a displayed antigen that fits its antigen receptors.
5) **Activated helper T cell releases cytokines when it encounters a B cell** that has previously combined with an identical antigen-bearing agent.
6) **Cytokines stimulate the B cell to proliferate**, enlarging its clone.
7) **Newly formed B cells give rise to cells that differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells**.
83
Describe the 5 Major Types of Antibodies or Immunoglobulins (IG) listed below:
IgG
IgA
IgM
IgD
IgE
**IgG:**
* 80% of antibodies
* *Acts on bacteria, viruses, toxins*
* Occurs in Plasma and tissue fluid
**IgA:**
* 13% of antibodies
* **Found in exocrine gland secretions**
* **Defends against bacteria & viruses**
**IgM:**
* 6% of antibodies
* *Acts on antigens in food and bacteria*
* Occurs in plasma
* *Reacts with antigens on some RBC membranes following mismatched blood transfusions*
* *Activates complement*
* **Reacts w/ antigens on RBC membranes**
**IgD:**
* <1% of antibodies
* *Found on B cells surfaces*
* **Activates B cell**
* Common in infants
**IgE:**
* <1% of antibodies
* *Found in exocrine gland secretions*
* **Promotes inflammation and allergic responses**
84
What is the difference between Naturally acquired *active* Immunity & Artificially acquired *active* Immunity?
**Naturally acquired active immunity:** Obtained by a *natural process*, such as getting and recovering from the disease, or given from mother to fetus or infant
* *Exposure to live pathogens*
* Stimulation of an immune response with symptoms of a disease
**Artificially acquired active immunity:**Obtained by an *injection*, instead of a natural process
* *Exposure to a vaccine containing weakened or dead pathogens* or their components
* Stimulation of an immune response without symptoms of a disease
85
What is the difference between Naturally Acquired *Passive* Immunity & Artificially Acquired *Passive* Immunity?
**Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity:** *Temporary immunity obtained via antibodies*
* No antigen exposure
* *No immune response is evoked in person’s immune system*
**Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity:** *Permanent immunity obtained via antigen contact*
* *Immune response is evoked*, and memory B cells are produced
86
**SELECT ALL THAT APPLY**
Which of the following are part of the first line of defense against pathogens?
A) Microorganisms are washed away by tears, saliva, and urine.
B) Particles trapped by the ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract are swept out of the airways.
C) Bacteria are engulfed by macrophages.
D) The site of an infection is walled off by an inflammatory response.
E) Viral replication is blocked by interferon.
F) Bacteria are removed from the skin by
the sloughing off of epidermal cells.
A) Microorganisms are washed away by tears, saliva, and urine.
B) Particles trapped by the ciliated epithelium of the respiratory tract are swept out of the airways.
87
Match the following signs of inflammation with the correct description:
**Pain, Heat, Redness, Edema**
A) Greater blood volume enters area d/t vasodilation
B) Blood enters area from deeper body parts
C) Appropriate receptors are stimulated in area of injury or infection
D) Capillaries in area of injury or infection have increased permeability (leakiness).
**Pain:**
* C) Appropriate receptors are stimulated in area of injury or infection
**Heat:**
* B) Blood enters area from deeper body parts
**Redness:**
* A) Greater blood volume enters area d/t vasodilation
**Edema:**
* D) Capillaries in area of injury or infection have increased permeability (leakiness).
88
Which two of these factors are examples of chemical barriers important in innate defense? **(SATA)**
A) lysozyme found in tears
B) mucus membranes
C) natural killer (NK) cells
D) pepsin and hydrochloric acid of gastric juice
A) lysozyme found in tears
D) pepsin and hydrochloric acid of gastric juice
89
**SELECT ALL THAT APPLY**
Which are characteristics of interferons?
A) plasma proteins that help with blood clotting
B) block viral replication
C) act as pyrogens
D) produced by lymphocytes and fibroblasts
B) block viral replication
D) produced by lymphocytes and fibroblasts
90
The redness and swelling associated with inflammation are both due to changes in ...
A) excessive growth of capillaries in injured tissue
B) bleeding due to damage to blood vessels
C) blood vessel diameter and permeability
C) blood vessel diameter and permeability
91
What is the defense function of stomach acid and the gastric enzyme called pepsin?
A) promote the absorption of vitamins necessary for cell production
B) activate interferons and complement
C) kill pathogens that are swallowed
C) kill pathogens that are swallowed
92
**Fill in the blank**
Fever is part of the **(x)** defense of the body.
A) Innate (nonspecific) defense
B) Adaptive (Specific) defense
A) Innate (nonspecific) defense
93
What is the 3rd line of defense against a pathogen?
A) a mechanical barrier such as the skin
B) resistance to specific pathogens or to the toxins or metabolic products they release
C) a chemical barrier such as gastric juice
B) resistance to specific pathogens or to the toxins or metabolic products they release
94
Where do B cell precursors fully differentiate into B lymphocytes?
A) Spleen
B) Thymus
C) Yellow bone marrow
D) Red bone marrow
D) Red bone marrow
95
**Fill in the blank**
T lymphocytes originate in the red bone marrow, then finish their maturation in the **(x)**.
A) lymph node
B) yellow bone marrow
C) spleen
D) thymus
D) thymus
96
**Fill in the blank**
The release of IgM followed by IgG is associated with the **(x)** immune response.
A) Primary
B) Secondary
C) tertiary
A) Primary
97
During a primary immune response, in which order do the plasma cells release the first two types of antibodies?
A) IgM followed by IgG
B) IgA followed by IgG
C) IgM followed by IgB
D) IgG followed by IgM
A) IgM followed by IgG
98
**Fill in the blank**
During a **(X)** immune response, antibodies are produced more rapidly than during a **(x)** immune response.
A) primary; secondary
B) secondary; primary
B) secondary; primary
99
Describe the 3 main carbohydrate sources listed below:
Polysaccharides
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides
**Polysaccharides:** Complex carbohydrates, such as starch from plant foods and glycogen from meats
**Disaccharides:** Milk sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, molasses *(double sugars)*
**Monosaccharides:** From honey and fruits *(single sugars)*
100
Which 3 monosaccharides are absorbed from the digestive system?
fructose, galactose, and glucose
101
**Select all that apply**
Glucose is broken down into **(x)**, **(x)**, and energy when needed
A) CO2
B) HCO3
C) H20
D) O2
A) CO2
C) H20
Glucose is broken down into **CO2, H2O**, and energy when needed
102
What happens to excess glucose in the body?
**Excess glucose is converted into glycogen by glycogenesis,** and stored in the liver and muscle cells
After storing a certain amount of glycogen, **excess glucose is converted into fats by lipogenesis**, and stored in the adipose tissue
103
**Organic compounds that include fats, oils, phospholipids, triglycerides and cholesterol**
Supply energy for cellular processes
*Serve as building blocks for structures* such as cell membranes
**Triglycerides:**
* Composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
* **Most common dietary lipids**
* Also called “fats”
Lipids
104
Describe the function of lipids:
**Mainly supply energy**
Contain more than twice as much chemical energy per gram as carbohydrates or proteins
**Triglycerides are broken down to glycerol and fatty acids, in order to release energy**
*Glycerol and fatty acids can be used to synthesize storage fats in adipose tissue*
105
Describe the lipoprotiens listed below:
*VLDLs* (very low density lipoproteins)
*LDLs* (low density lipoproteins)
*HDLs* (high density lipoproteins)
**VLDLs** *(very low density lipoproteins):* High triglyceride content
**LDLs** *(low density lipoproteins):* High cholesterol content
**HDLs** *(high density lipoproteins):* High protein content
106
What is the role of the liver in the use of lipids?
**Controls cholesterol level**
* Produced by the liver, and released into the blood
* Can be used to make bile salts
* Excreted in bile
107
**Consist of chains of amino acids**
* Excess amino acids can also be converted to glucose or fats
*Building new proteins (structural proteins, enzymes, hormones, antibodies, clotting factors, and other plasma proteins)*
First broken down into amino acids
**Amino group (-NH2)** *are removed through deamination*; they react to form urea, which is excreted in urine
**Deaminated portions** *of amino acids are decomposed in various pathways that produce ATP*, such as the citric acid cycle
Proteins
108
What is the difference between Negative Nitrogen Balance & Positive Nitrogen Balance?
**Negative Nitrogen Balance:** *Develops from starvation* (excretion exceeds dietary intake)
**Positive Nitrogen Balance:** Develops in growing children, pregnant women, or an athlete in training (**protein being built into new tissue exceeds energy usage and excretion**)
109
What are the 4 Fat-soluble vitamins?
**A:**
* Antioxidant necessary for *synthesis of visual pigments*
* **Normal development of bones and teeth** & for maintenance of epithelial cells
**D:**
* *Promotes absorption of calcium and phosphorus*
* **Promotes development of teeth and bones**
**E:**
* Help maintain stability of cell membranes
* **Antioxidant that prevents oxidation of vitamin A and polyunsaturated fatty acids**
**K:**
* Required for **synthesis of prothrombin** *(functions in blood clotting)*
110
What are the 2 Water-soluble vitamins?
B Vitamins
C Vitamins
111
**Dissolve in fats**
Influenced by the same factors that affect lipid absorption
*Bile salts promote fat-soluble vitamin absorption*
Stored in various tissues, so **excess intake leads to overdose**, which can be harmful to health
*Resistant to heat; not often destroyed by cooking and/or food processing*
**Includes vitamins A, D, E and K**
Fat-soluble vitamins
112
Cooking and food processing destroys some of them
**B vitamins and vitamin C:**
* **B vitamins are essential for normal cellular metabolism**
* B vitamins are usually found in the same foods *(AKA vitamin B complex)*
Water-soluble vitamins
113
**Inorganic elements** *required in metabolism*
**Most concentrated in the bones and teeth (calcium, phosphorus)**
Have roles in muscle contraction, nerve impulse conduction, *blood coagulation (organic - Hgb)*, pH regulation, etc
**Toxicity can result from ingestion of too much of a mineral, or from overexposure to industrial pollutants, household chemicals, or certain drugs**
Minerals
114
What are the 7 Major minerals (macrominerals) that account for body weight?
**Calcium (75%)**
**Phosphorus (75%)**
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
115
*Structure of bones and teeth*
**Essential for neurotransmitter release, muscle fiber contraction, the cardiac action potential, and blood coagulation**
Activates certain enzymes
Calcium (Ca)
116
*Structure of bones and teeth*
Component of nearly all metabolic reactions
**In nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes, & some vitamins**
**In cell membrane, ATP, & phosphates of body fluids**
Phosphorus (P)
117
**Helps maintain intracellular osmotic pressure and regulate pH**
Required for impulse conduction in neurons
Potassium (K)
118
*Helps maintain osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids*
Regulates water movement
Plays a role in impulse conduction in neurons
**Regulates pH and transport of substances across cell membranes**
Sodium (Na)
119
Part of hemoglobin molecule
Assists in vitamin A synthesis
Incorporated into a number of enzymes
Iron (Fe)
120
What are some bodily changes that occur during starvation?
Depression
*Tooth decay*, periodontal disease, *DM*
*Deficiency of vitamin A* may take a long time to show up
*Calcium deficiency* may not show symptoms as bones lose mineral content
*Vitamin D deficiency* may develop in absence of sun exposure
121
List & describe the 2 major nutrient classes:
**Macronutrients:** *Required in large quantities of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins (provide energy)*
**Micronutrients:** *Required in small amounts, such as vitamins and minerals (extract energy from macronutrients)*
122
What is the difference between anabolism & catabolism?
**Anabolism:** Small molecules are built into larger ones; requires energy
**Catabolism:** Larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones; releases energy
123
What are the 2 types of Cellular respiration?
**Anaerobic reactions: Do not require O2, & make little ATP**
* *Glycolysis (2 ATP + electron storing molecules)*
**Aerobic reactions: Require O2, & make most of ATP**
* *Citric acid cycle (2 ATP + electron storing molecules)*
* *Electron transport chain / oxidative phosphorylation (32 ATP , NET = 36 ATP)*
124
What are the final products of cellular respiration?
Carbon dioxide
Water
**ATP (chemical energy, 40%)**
**Heat (60%)**
125
What are the three sets of reactions of glycolysis?
Phosphorylation of glucose
Splitting/cleavage of glucose into two 3-carbon molecules
Production of NADH, ATP, and two molecules of pyruvic acid
126
**First reaction sequence of glucose breakdown**
Breaks down **glucose (6-carbon) into 2 pyruvic acid (3-carbon)** molecules
Occurs in cytosol
**Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration**
* *Yields 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule broken down*
Glycolysis
127
**NADH and H+ deliver electrons to the electron transport chain with oxygen** as the final electron acceptor
* **Do not require O2**
* Absence of oxygen means no electron acceptor
**NADH and H+ deliver electrons and H+ back to pyruvic acid to form lactic acid**
* Buildup of lactic acid inhibits glycolysis
*ATP production is decreased:*
* **Glycolysis produces much less ATP** than aerobic respiration
* **Net gain of 2 ATP per molecule of glucose broken down**
Anaerobic reactions
128
Presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid enters the pathway
Include:
* Synthesis of acetyl coenzyme A
* *Citric acid cycle*
* Electron transport chain
*Begins with pyruvic acid moving from cytosol to mitochondria*
**Pyruvic acid is used to produce acetyl CoA**
**End products are CO2, H2O, and up to 36 ATP per molecule of glucose**
Aerobic Reactions
129
**Begins when acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid**
Citric acid is changed into oxaloacetic acid through a series of reactions
*Cycle repeats as long as pyruvic acid and oxygen are available*
For each molecule:
* **1 ATP is produced**
* **8 hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD**
* **2 CO2 are produced; enters blood and is exhaled**
Citric Acid Cycle
130
**NADH and FADH2 carry hydrogen and high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC)**
* *ETC: Series of enzyme complexes (electron carriers) located in the inner membrane of mitochondria*
ATP synthase uses energy to catalyze phosphorylation of
* *ADP to ATP*
**H2O is formed (oxygen is the final electron “carrier”)**
**Summary of ATP production in complete oxidation of glucose:**
* *2 ATP produced in glycolysis*
* *2 ATP produced in citric acid cycle*
* *28 ATP produced in electron transport chain*
Electron Transport Chain
