Quiz 3 Flashcards
(236 cards)
1
Q
What is one example that shows how complex perception is?
A
Training computers that are accurate in identifying objects in our environment
2
Q
Sensation
A
The transformation of information from external input into sensory representations
3
Q
5 sensory organs
A
- Eyes
- Ears
- Mouth
- Touch
- Nose
4
Q
Each organ translates a different type of
A
input
5
Q
Transduction
A
Converting from natural state to neural signal/impulse
6
Q
Perception
A
Transformation of information from sensation (sensory organ) to object recognition
7
Q
Study of perception
A
The study of the transmissions of information from sensory input to object recognition
8
Q
Steps of perception
A
- Distal stimulus
- Proximal stimulus
- Percept
- Mental representation
- Behavior
9
Q
Distal stimulus
A
External input
10
Q
Proximal stimulus
A
Sense organs
11
Q
Percept
A
Experience (or perception)
12
Q
Direct Perception by James Gibson
A
What you see is what you get
- Innate mechanisms forged by evolution
- No learning is required
13
Q
Theory of Constructivism
A
Stimulus from environment is often ambiguous so to interpret it we need information from past experiences or knowledge to make inferences about what we perceive
14
Q
Which theory argues that input is “incomplete”?
A
Theory of constructivism
15
Q
Which theory argues that what we perceive is the reality?
A
Direct perception theory
16
Q
Bottom-up
A
Information processing driven by stimulus data only
- Physical stimuli coming in
17
Q
Is Theory of direct perception bottom-up, top-down, or both?
A
Bottom-up
18
Q
Why is Theory of direct perception bottom-up?
A
Because it does not take into account prior knowledge or past experience, instead it simply takes what comes in and that is what we see.
- Stimulus driven
19
Q
Top-down
A
Information processing driven by prior knowledge and expectations
20
Q
Is Theory of Constructivism bottom-up, top-down, or both?
A
Both
21
Q
Why is Theory of Constructivism both bottom-up and top-down?
A
Because it processes what is out there but we also need to interpret it with our past experiences
22
Q
Examples that go against Gibson’s direct perception theory
A
- Poggendorf’s Illusion (which line continues?)
- White’s illusion (which grey is darker?)
- Zollner Illusion (are lines parallel?)
23
Q
Lack of correspondence
A
When one’s mental representation (percept) does not correspond to the distal stimulus
24
Q
Evidence for constructivism
A
- Lack of correspondence (we don’t see what is really there)
- Paradoxical correspondence (we see what is there)
25
Paradoxical correspondence
When the proximal stimulus DOES NOT correspond to the distal stimulus, BUT the mental representation (percept) DOES correspond to the distal
26
Example of paradoxical correspondence
When a car drives a way you don't perceive it as shrinking even though it looks smaller, you perceive it as driving away
27
Paradoxical correspondence is evidence for constructivism because...
Because it shows that the brain uses prior knowledge and context to create perception
28
Why does lack of correspondence support constructivism?
It shows that perception can be inaccurate when sensory input alone is not sufficient - thus showing that interpretation and knowledge are important
29
Perceptual constancy
The tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, color, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance or lighting
30
Perceptual constancies
1. Color
2. Shape
3. Size
31
Perceptual constancy is when a mental representation of a distal stimulus remains...
constant even when the corresponding proximal stimulus change
32
Problems in transmission refers to...
Lack of correspondence
33
Corrections in transmission
Paradoxical correspondence
34
Problem of perception
The sensory information is incomplete
35
Sensory information is incomplete because...
1. Too much sensory input (bottleneck theory)
2. Inconsistent input
3. Imperfect representation of input
36
Bottleneck theory
People have a limited amount of attentional resources that they can use at one time. Thus, the information and stimuli are filtered so only the most important is processed.
37
Perception depends on both ... and ... processes
bottom-up and top-down
38
Around what age do we learn depth cues
1st year
39
It is not until the child learns to move around on its own that it learns to use visual information from the environment to perceive...
depth
40
We receive ... from our senses and we ... for it using ...
imperfect information
correct
experience and knowledge
41
Monocular cues (static)
Cues that can be used for depth perception that involve using only one eye.
- Allow us to convert 2D in our retina to 3D representation of our percept
42
List the monocular cues
- Linear perspective
- Texture
- Aerial perspective
- Relative size
- Interposition
- Shadows
- Accomodation
43
Linear perspective
Parallel lines appear to meet as they travel into the distance
44
Texture gradient
1. The texture of an object becomes less and less apparent the farther it goes into the distance
2. The shapes in foreground appear larger, and shapes in the background appear more compressed
45
Aerial perspective
The atmosphere diffuses light such that things closer to you are clearer than the things further away
46
Relative size
If two objects are roughly the same size, the object that looks the largest will be judged as being the closest to the observer
47
Interposition
When one object overlaps another, the object that is partially obscured is perceived as being farther away
48
Shadow
We assume that light is coming in from above
48
Accommodation
Near - lens is rounder
Far - lens flat
49
Binocular cues
- Retina disparity
- Convergence
50
Retinal (binocular) disparity
retinas (left and right) get different views of the same scene. The brain takes the difference to compute where things are in space
51
Convergence
The muscles that control your eyes - can be used to interpret
52
How do we construct perception
1. Sensations
2. Attention
3. Experience
4. Knowledge
5. Current state
53
Prior experiences that change what we perceive
1. preference for movement from left to right (reading)
2. higher purchase intent based on handedness
54
Knowledge can change what you say you perceive
Knowing what is more expensive can change what you say you like
55
Mood affects perception
Height overestimation may be due, in part, to fear
56
Current state
- Mood
- Action or ability to act
- Need
- Bodily state
56
Action or ability to act affects perception
- Ex. if you are carrying heavy backpack you will perceive a hill as steeper because you feel less capable of climbing
- After shooting goal those who missed most goal was perceived as smaller
57
Need affects perception
Water more appealing when closer, less perceived distance
58
Bodily state affects perception
The way you are carrying your body influences perception (ex. smiling)
59
A Freudian psychologist gives a client the Rorschach Inkblot Test. The client views an abstract drawing and is asked what she sees. The client says, " I see my mother and father fighting". This is best explained by:
Constructivist theory
60
percept =/ distal
lack of correspondence
61
percept = distal =/ proximal
paradoxical correspondence
62
Bottomless bowl experiment
People wit bottomless bowl ate way more but thought they ate around the same as the other group (underestimated amount of food)
63
Sensory marketing
marketing designated to engage the costumers senses and affect their perception, judgement and behavior
64
Levers in sensory marketing
- Motion
- Sight
- Sound
- Aroma
- Design
- Texture
- Color
- Interactivity
- Touch
65
Sensory branding
Type of marketing that appeals to all the senses in relation to the brand
66
Sensory tactics are impacting...
- Awareness
- Recall
- Mood
- Need
- Preference
- Decision making
67
The power of smell - cleaning spray
Testing room with scented cleaning material vs unscented. Came up with more words and things to do related to cleaning. Cleaned up more after eating cookie.
68
The power of smell - wipes
Scented wipes more pleasant, stronger wipes, more effective and gentle and more purchase intention
69
The power of touch - coffee
Hot coffee - think the person who hands the coffee has warmer personality
70
The power of touch - pad
Hot pad more likely to give reward to friend
71
The power of touch: tactile warmth made people see metaphorical...
warmth in others and act in warmer ways
72
The power of music - wine
can increase sales of french wine by playing french music and german wines by playing german music
73
The power of sound - ice cream
- Front vowels: smaller and less powerful
- Back vowels: larger and more powerful
More wanted the frosh (back)
74
The power of touch - physical contact
small physical contact can increase likelihood to buy, try and buy a food
75
People prefer drinking wine from...
a more elongated glass
76
Example of senses not always working in the way you think it should - wine glass
Wine glass - elongated preferred but they feel less satisfied after
77
Example of senses not always working in the way you think it should - juice
Most difference in perception due to color difference (more than price and quality)
78
Why does sensory marketing not always work in the way we think it should?
Because sensation is not equal to perception
79
Popsicle case - marketing does not always work the way we think it should
Strawberry flavor
- Yellow popsicle too acidic
80
color flavors change our expectations and
change how we taste food
81
coffee in white mug tasted less sweet than in
transparent or blue mug
82
7up has a more lemon-limey taste when more yellow was
added to the packaging
83
strawberry mousse tasted better on a white round plate than
on a black square plate
84
Expectations bias sensory representations both
prior and during evidence accumulation
85
cross cultural differences affecting perception
- westerns focus on location based on right, left, up, down
86
Everyone experiences perceptual constancies and perceptual biases...
the same way
87
Interaction of color and
taste
88
Interaction of size and
color
89
Krishna experiment (car and heating pad)
Adding cinnamon to car (for funerals) and back heating pad - cinnamon makes people perceive heating pad works better but no difference on car
90
Superadditive IKEA
Scent and light (interaction) combination created a 50% increase in sales
91
Subadditive
Music + scent (interaction) combined decreased unplanned purchases
92
iPhone vs Nokia
Nokia (authentic brand) - congruent
Apple (exciting brand) - incongruent
93
What are the two things that determine perceived size?
1. Size of proximal stimulus (retina representation)
2. Depth cues to compute distance
94
The visual system must have both .... and .... in order to determine the true size of an object
- size of proximal stimulus
- depth cues to compute distance
95
Which best describes how depth can be determined based on binocular convergence
The amount of muscle movement required to turn the eyes inward/outward
96
The process of perception
1. Color encoding
2. Feature encoding
3. Object encoding
4. Object Recognition
97
What is the transmission of information in the visual system
1. Light - retina
2. Layer 1 - Layer 2 - Layer 3
3. Layer 3 - Thalamus (LGN) - Visual cortex (V1)
4. Visual cortex
- Parietal lobe
- Temporal lobe
98
How is information represented in this part of the visual system?
- Layer 1 (photoreceptors)
- Layer 3 (ganglion cells)
- Visual cortex
99
Transmission of information: light from distal to eye
1. Light is emitted by light source
2. Some frequencies of light are absorbed by a distal stimulus
3. Other frequencies of light are reflected
4. Some of this light reaches our eyes
100
Which is the area of the retina with highest concentration of cones?
Fovea
101
transmission: light from cornea to retina
1. cornea
2. pupil
3. lens
4. retina
102
What is the transmission of information in the visual system?
Light enters through the pupil into our eye and is refracted onto the retina on the back of the eye (light - cornea - pupil - lens - retina)
103
Transmission in retina
Layer 1: photoreceptors
Layer 2: bipolar
Layer 3: ganglion
104
From Layer 1 in the retina information is sent...
forward to layer 2 and 3 and then light goes back to retina and hits layer 1
105
Representation of information in the retina
the retina is basically a two dimensional sheet of on-off like buttons/cells
106
when the buttons/cells in the retina are active or inhibited they are...
ON
107
when the buttons/cells in the retina are in a resting state they are...
OFF
108
Visual field
The total area of space in which objects can be 'detected and processed'
109
Our visual field includes both what is captured in our
central and peripheral vision
110
Visual receptive field:
a region of the visual field that is "processed by" a single neuron in the retina
111
In the visual receptive field, the presence of a stimulus will alter...
the firing of one specific neuron
112
Hubel and Wiesel - mapping the receptive field
Simple cells respond to what
Complex cells respond to where
113
How do receptive fields in the retina contribute to the processing of visual information?
They break down visual stimuli into elementary features, such as edges and orientation.
114
In which layer of the retina is light converted into neural signals, and the features of visual information are coded by cells?
Photoreceptor Layer
115
Feature detection (decomposition)
Color
- Cones
Form
- High spatial resolution
- Low temporal resolution
Motion
- Low spatial resolution
- High temporal resolution
116
What layer of the retina are rods and cones located in?
Layer 1 - Photoreceptor layer
117
What layer of the retina is center-surround organization in?
Layer 3 - Ganglion
118
Hubel and Wiesel
Cats - visual receptive field and visual field
119
Cones
- Color
- Fovea
- 3 types - B, G, R
120
Cones: Their primary role is to enable us to see ... ... and to detect ... ... , especially in well-lit conditions.
- in color
- fine detail
121
Cones are the ... and rods are the ...
1. WHAT
2. WHERE
122
Cones work alongside rods, which are photoreceptors responsible for vision in ... .... and are more sensitive to .... .
- low light
- movement
123
Rods
- Black and white - brightness
- Periphery
124
Photoreceptors
Traduce light energy into neural signal
125
Which of the two (rods or cones), is located in the center of the retina (fovea)?
Cones
126
Which of the two (rods or cones), is good for movement?
Rods
127
Which of the two (rods or cones), has high sensitivity and low acuity?
Rods
128
In feature detection which one of the following represents the WHAT?
a. Form
b. Motion
c. Color
A
129
Compiling (abstraction) in the retina
Information gets put together and compiled to come up with an image
130
Transmission involves the ...
compilation of information from most basic to increasingly complex and abstracted representations
131
In layer 1, light is converted into...
neural signal and the feature of the visual information in the environment are coded by the rods/cones in this layer of the retina
132
In the layer 3 of the retina (ganglion cells), there are ... types of ... ...
- 2
- receptive fields
133
On-center/off-surround and off-center/on-surround is in the ...
ganglion cells
134
Information representation in the ganglion cells occurs through...
Center surround organization
135
What are the two types of receptive fields in ganglion cells?
1. On center, off surround
2. Off center, on surround
136
How is information coded in the ganglion cells?
Point detection
- Complimentary layering creating an overlap between the on-center and the off-center
137
Contiguous cells have ... receptive fields
contiguous
138
Ganglion cells - White
large response by On-center
139
Ganglion cells - Black
large response by Off- center
140
Information consolidation
Lower layers of cells feed to higher layers and information gets condensed/compiled in this transmission process
141
Transfromation: visual cortex (V1)
Simple, complex, hypercomplex
142
Transmission: light - occipital cortex
1. Rods and cones
2. Bipolar cells
3. Ganglion cells
4. Lateral Geniculate (LGN)
5. Occipital lobe
143
Occipital lobe and occipital cortex
they are in the same area
144
How is information coded in the visual cortex?
3 types of cells: simple, complex and hypercomplex
145
Simple cell
- Dot to lines
- Input from LGN
- Bar of light
- Specific orientation
- Specific retinal position (visual space)
146
Complex cell
- Input from simple cells
- Bars of light anywhere
- Absolute position does not matter
- Some respond well to movement
- Edge detection
147
Hypercomplex cell
- Input from complex
- Specific sizes of bars of light
- Some respond well to angles, corners and gaps
148
How is information presented in this part of the visual system? (visual cortex)
Retina & LGN
- Position
Simple cells
- Bars & orientation
Complex cells
- Movement
- Edges
Hypercomplex
- Angles
- Corners
149
Parvo
Patterns/color/form
- Sustained response
- Small receptive field
WHAT
150
Magno
Movement/Location
- Transient response
- Larger receptive field
WHERE
151
Information differentiation
1. Light
2. Rods and cones
3. Bipolar cells
4. Ganglion cells
- M cells
- P cells
152
The P cells of the retina are most likely to receive information from which type of cells?
A. Hypercomplex
B. Rods
C. Simple cortical cells
D. Cones
D. Cones
153
M and P cells are ... in the ...
1. Ganglion
2. Retina
154
Magno and Parvo cells are cells in separate layers of the ...
LGN
155
Kohler PET Study: Spatial vs Object
Spatial task: locations same or different?
Object task: objects same or different?
Results: parietal location, temporal object
156
Dorsal stream "where"
- Parietal lobe
- Magno cells
157
Ventral stream "what"
- Temporal lobe
- Parvo cells
158
The "what" is put together with the "where" by...
synchrony
159
The "what" is put together with the "where" by synchrony: when the ... and ... cells fire with the same ....
1. dorsal
2. ventral
3. rhythm
160
Cortical specialization ventral face area
- Fusiform gyrus: face area
- Temporal lobe
161
Need ... of activation across a population of cells to recognize objects
patterns
162
Pattern recognition
Must match the percept with the memory representation
163
Challenge for pattern recognition
1. We identify objects we have never seen before
2. We recognize objects from different angles, when partially obscured and when incomplete
164
Major challenge for pattern recognition
Shape constancy
165
Feature theory
Recognizing patterns by identifying its features
- Percept and memory = lists of features
166
Pandenomium model of Feature theory
1. Image demon
2. Feature demons
3. Cognitive demons
4. Decision demon
167
Evidence for feature theory
- Physiology (recordings from neurons)
- Stabilized retinal images (things fade away if u dont blink)
- Caricatures
168
Stabilized retinal images
- Circle goes away
- BEER missing letters
169
Evidence againts feature theory
- Relationship among features matters (different arrangements of the same features produces different objects)
- Natural objects (ex. the faces of people are hard to classify into features)
170
Feature theory is a ... theory
bottom-up
171
Recognition-by-components theory is an example of a
structural theory
172
Recognition-by-components main idea
we decompose an object into basic components, or primitives, which are called geons. Each representation is a list of the geons in the object and the relationship among the geons.
173
What are geons?
They are a basic alphabet:primitive unit of analysis
- 3 dimensional shapes
- 100 different relations
174
the RBC theory addresses the main limitations of feature theory because...
it includes the relationships between the different objects
175
4 steps to matching in RBC theory
1. Detect elementary features
2. Find non-accidental properties
3. Determine component geons
4. Match geons to memory
176
Non-accidental properties
Do not change from view to view (ex. square will always have the same amount of angles no matter how you look at it)
177
Evidence for structural theory
1. Partial or degraded objects
2. Object complexity
3. Unusual orientations
4. Physiological evidence (monkey experiment)
178
Biederman monkey experiment
Supports RBC
- Showed different objects to identify neuron that responds only to objects sharing certain geons
179
Evidence against RBC theory
- More brain evidence needed
- Difficulty distinguishing similar objects
- Can't explain context effects (somethings is harder to recognize when it is out of place)
180
Bottom-up theories
- Feature theory
- RBC theory
181
Top-down processing: 2 types
1. Expectation/bias (beer study)
2. Context (ex. ambiguous letters and the cat)
182
Agnosia
inability to interpret sensations and hence to recognize things, typically as a result of brain damage.
183
Akinetopsia
"motion blindness", which is a higher visual processing disorder from an extra-striate lesion, in which a patient has difficulty specifically perceiving objects in motion with variable severity and rarely complete.
184
Embodied cognition
Without our conscious awareness, our bodily sensations help determine the decisions we make
185
Example of embodied cognition
- Warm beverage - person more friendly
186
Perception can involve a process similar to ...
reasoning or problem solving
187
Perception occurs in conjunction with...
action
188
Difficulties involved in designing a "perceiving machine"
1. The stimulus on the receptors is ambiguous
2. Objects can be hidden or blurred
3. Objects look different from different viewpoints
189
What is the inverse projection problem?
A task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina
190
Do humans struggle with inverse projection problem?
No, computers do
191
Viewpoint invariance
The ability to recognize an object seen from different viewpoints
192
Bottom-up processing starts at the beginning of the system, when environmental energy...
stimulates the receptors
193
Bottom-up examples: Perceiving objects and people
1. ASK or 456
2. Rice et al and Calbi et al
194
Rice et al (2013) - identifying people
When facial features were ambiguous, participants used information from the body
- Participants were not aware that they were looking at body features, they thought they were looking at the faces
195
Calbi et al - emotional expressions
The dynamic emotional context of short video fragments affected how participants rated the emotional expression of a neutral face
- Ex. in fear context neutral faces more negative
196
Bottom-up examples: Hearing words in a sentence
If you speak the language - speech segmentation, if you do not unbroken string of sound
197
Speech segmentation
Being able to tend where one word ends and the next one begins
198
Bottom-up examples: Experiencing pain
- Hospital study, placebo study and gaming study
199
Hospital study
Surgical patients were told what to expect and were told to relax to alleviate pain. Patients requested less painkillers after surgery and were sent home earlier.
200
Placebo studies - Finniss et al
Significant proportion of patients with pathological pain get real relief from taking placebo
201
Nilsson study - gaming
Gaming can help reduce pain behavior and subjective distress in children undergoing wound care
202
Helmholtz's theory of unconscious inference
- Said that image on the retina is ambiguous
- Likelihood principle
- Unconscious ineference
203
Likelihood principle
We perceive the object that is most likely to have caused the pattern of stimuli we have received
204
Unconscious inference
Our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions, or inferences, that we make about the enviornment
205
The Gestalt principles of organization
- The whole is more than the sum of its parts
Visual perception is based on more than just the pattern of light and dark on the retina
206
Principles of perceptual organization (Gestalt)
- Principle of good continuation
- Pragnanz
- Similarity
207
Principle of good continuation
- Points that, when connected, result in
straight or smoothly curving lines are seen as belonging together, and the lines tend to be seen as to follow the smoothest path.
- Objects that are overlapped by other objects are perceived as continuing behind the overlapping object
208
Principle of pragnanz (or good figure/simplicity)
the perceptual field
and objects within it will take on the simplest and most encompassing (ausgezeichnet) structure
permitted by the given conditions
209
Similarity principle
Similar things appear to be grouped together
- Size, shape, orientation, enclosure or proximity
210
Regularities of the environment
Characteristics of the environment that occur frequently and therefore strongly influence what we expect to see
211
Two types of regularities
1. physical regularities
2. semantic regularities
212
Physical regularities
Regularly occurring physical properties of the environment
- Ex. there are more vertical and horizontal orientations in the environment than oblique
- Ex. light from above
213
Oblique effect
People can perceive horizontals and verticals more easily than other orientations
214
Semantic regularities
The characteristics associated with the functions carried out in different types of scenes.
Ex. airport: check-in, security, boarding...
215
Scene schema
Knowledge of what a given scene typically contains
216
Palmer - scene schema study
Presented a context scene such as a kitchen and then participants were asked to identify the object in the target picture like a loaf of bread.
- They identified the object more easily when the object fit the scene
217
Bayesian inference
Our estimate of the probability of an outcome is determined by two factors:
1. Prior: The prior probability or simply the prior
2. Likelihood:The extent to which the available evidence is consistent with the outcome
218
Prior probability or prior
Our initial belief about the probability of an outcome
219
Radel and Clement-Guillotin study on role of motivation
Whether being hungry or not affected how quickly and how accurately food-related words are seen.
Food related words easier and better perceived by the hungry people.
220
Nasr and Tootell - horizontal and vertical study humans
the PPA shows higher fMRI activity when things are presented in vertical and horizontal ways. More neurons respond to horizontals and verticals..
221
Why are there more neurons that respond to horizontal and verticals?
1. Theory of natural selection - Darwin
222
The mechanism through which the structure of the brain is changed by experience is...
experience-dependent plasticity
223
Blakemore and Cooper - cat shaping by experience
Cats that had been put in an environment with horizontal lines recognized those and ignored vertical after, and same the other way around
224
Gauthier et al study of experience-dependent plasticity - faces
Learned Greeble faces and the fusiform face area (FFA) eventually learned to recognize them in the same way as faces
225
Brain lesioning
The study of the effect of removing parts of the brain in animals
226
Neuropsychology
the study of the behavior of people with brain damage
227
Ungerleider and Mishkin - monkey
Removed a part of the monkey's brain which affected its ability to identify an object and where it is.
Temporal lobe - WHAT
Parietal lobe - WHERE (discrimination problem)
228
What pathway
The pathway leading from the striate cortex to the temporal lobe
229
Where cortex
Pathway leading from the striate cortex to the parietal lobe
230
Visual agnosia
No longer could recognizing everyday objects, familiar faces and geometrical shapes, despite being
able to identify an object’s colour or visual texture. DAMAGE TO VENTRAL
231
Inverse projection
Occurs because a huge number of possible objects could be associated with a particular image on the retina
232
which type of cell does not take in info from the env
hypercomplex
232
P cells are
SUSTAINED RESPONSE (long continuous firing)
233
M cells are
TRANSIENT (short bursts)
