quiz 4

Question 1

what is critical criminology?

Answer 1

• branch of criminology that views the world of a political structure of the worlds have and have not; conflict between people is what drives violence
• critical of social structure and focus on inequalities -> role between person and governing body; consider race and economic inequalities as real crimes

Question 2

history behind critical criminology?

Answer 2

• Karl max was not just a communist but a philosopher
• he considered the censoring of working class as a cause or leading to social uprising (the subjugated generally out number the powerful)
• production is comprised of productive forces and productive relations

Question 3

what are the two party system? (critical criminology)

Answer 3

• Bourgeoisie -> ruling class; owns means of production; monopoly on power = political control; ability to write and create law to their advantage; perpetuate lower class oppression
• proletariat -> the working class; only have labor to sell; no power to modify oppression (individually); collective revolution would lead to class free, communist society

Question 4

what Marxism said on crime?

Answer 4

• Marx himself says very little -> does mention that the CJS can be a tool of oppression; can be weaponized by the powerful to keep the proletariat from collecting and unionizing
• Engels suggest that crime is the result of working class demoralization-> people would rather take control of their own destruction than be dehumanized; happy worker means more productive

Question 5

modern critical criminology

Answer 5

• Social upheaval in the 1960s and 1970s-> life for the marginalized did not change much despite women’s movement, civil rights movement, disability movement, etc.
• Questioned whether social controls were causing rather than preventing deviance-> with all these gender and race neutral laws why do inequalities continue to persist?
• Focus on the use and misuse of power

Question 6

basic assumption of critical criminology

Answer 6

Social and economic power structures are what causes crime

Criminals are not misfits or outsiders

Question 7

crime causation (critical criminology)

Answer 7

Creation of surplus value means less people are needed to maintain profits

These individuals become marginalized from the labor market; weakening their social bond

Question 8

instrumental critical theory?

Answer 8

View that laws are an instrument used by the powerful to limit and oppress the lower class

Using economic/political clout to avoid punishment among the powerful

Might explain why prison sentences for WCC (white collar crime) are so small in comparison to street crime sentences

Demystifying the CJS-> unmasking the real purpose of the CJS; stop telling the law class they are more criminogenic

Question 9

structural theory?

Answer 9

View that laws are created to protect capitalist structure-> democracy is the reason why there are laws that prevent total domination by one person

Maintenance of all classes is important

Company monopolies are just as much of a threat to a thriving capitalist society as street level crimes-> ex: proposed billionaire tax bill

Question 10

empirical research on structural theory?

Answer 10

Evidence for racial and economic inequality and bias are found at all stages of the CJ system

Police shootings/arrest, conviction, sentencing, reentry

Women who engage in violent crime are more harshly sentences

Minority men are more likely to have police contact

Question 11

critical race theory (CRT)?

Answer 11

1989 legal critical theory

Created as a philosophical exercise to understand why racial inequality persists despite equal rights

Draws upon historical past-> tries to see if systemic or institutional racism are retarding the growth of equal rights

It is a perspective and way to think about causes of inequality

Question 12

how is CRT used/studied?

Answer 12

Examination of race-neutral and race-based laws-> cocaine laws - 100:1 now 18:1 powder to crack; objectively same substance, crack is more concentrated

Used to understand how historical past has undue influence on today present-> generations of forced poverty leads to naturalistic poverty

Used to create more effective prevention, intervention, diversion, and correctional programming-> culturally sensitive programs are more effective

Question 13

bias, prejudice, and racism (CRT)?

Answer 13

Used to dissect differences in bias, prejudice, racism, and institutional racism

Bias - preference for or against a person

Prejudice - preconceived opinion that is not based in fact

Racist - individual who is prejudice against a particular racial group

Institutional racism - systemic policies, rules, patterns that promote the subjugations of one or more racial groups

By discussing and knowing which is the cause of inequality we can improve things to make them more equitable

Question 14

police profiling and abuse (CRT):

Answer 14

Racial threat hypothesis-> implicit bias and fear regarding black male bodies; perception that power is finite, thus powerful worry when others want some of it; 1 in 3 black man go to prison/jail

Racial profiling increases police contact

Studies routinely show black men are arrest, convicted, and sentenced harshly-> especially true if victim is white/and or female

Question 15

General criticisms of critical theories:

Answer 15

Perpetuate the “steal from the rich and give to the poor” -> corrections to inequality that involve a focused benefit to racial minorities is viewed as unfair; white people are born with similar disadvantage as minorities

Most street level crime are not done for survival-> expressions of power and dominance; street crime victims are often not those with status and power; intra-racial, intra-poverty

Not a proper theory the same way SLT is

Is a distraction to what leads to individuals to engage in crime -> most marginalized people do not engage in crime, so it must be more than that

No recognition of self-regulation in the justice or societal system-> justice system has built in checks and balances to limit or reduce prejudice; refusal to acknowledge efforts by police to limit racial profiling

Question 16

left realism is? (one of alternative critical theories)

Answer 16

Moderate left-wing response to the other punitive conservative “law and order” view of the CJS-> law and order can easily be used to benefit the powerful and oppress the poor

However, too much focus on “haves and have-nots” could mean viewing criminals as revolutionaries

Adopt a more realistic approach -> there needs to be law and order, but also acknowledgement that political structures are highly influenced and motivated to protect powerful

The most marginalized people are oppressed by the state AND by the people committing crime against them -> most criminals target people like themselves, not the powerful

When government fails to provide safe and healthy markets -> young, black men will engage in hyper-masculinity bare brunt of broken society

The equation is simple: relative deprivation = discontent; discontent + lack of political solution = crime

Question 17

Left Realism and Crime Protection:

Answer 17

The CJ system is a neutral tool-> institutions often provide life-savings services

Preemptive deterrence - community attempts to stop crime before it comes to attention of police -> benefits of community prevention means greater social buy-in

We do not need a socialist society to reduce crime

Question 18

new Jim Crow (left realism):

Answer 18

There are more black people behind bars than there were slaves in the civil war

Jim crow laws were segregation tactics used to separate races -> views mass incarceration as “New Jim Crow;” War on Drugs is the new slavery

As crime declines, there is less public interest for tax dollars going toward expensive mass incarceration -> emphasis on cheaper treatment, reentry, and alternative detentions

Question 19

feminist criminology?

Answer 19

1960 second wave of women movement

Recognition that all criminological theories were created by men about men -> more specifically white men of privilege

Feminist scholars argued that the difference in lived and structural experience means we need new theories to understand female offending and victimization

Question 20

feminist critical theory:

Answer 20

Gender inequality is the result of the unequal power between men and women

Patriarchy - a system of male supremacy that promotes the oppression of women in society -> historical evidence in the devaluing of jobs done primarily by women; teacher, nurse, education

Question 21

understanding gender divide (feminist theory):

Answer 21

Double marginalization- capitalist control laborers and men control women; women have few opportunities to engage in white collar crimes; prevented from male dominated street crime

Female victimization - frustrated lower class men will victimize lower class women because they are more vulnerable

Question 22

understanding the female (feminist criminology)

Answer 22

Female offenders are significantly more likely to have issues related to mental health and have extensive victimization histories

Social constraints of motherhood make female offending that much riskier

Question 23

masculinity and crime (feminist criminology)

Answer 23

Traditional gender binary places value statement on “masculine” and “feminine” -> violence and aggression are viewed as masculine characteristics; if you are not masculine, then you are feminine

Hegemonic masculinity - idealized view of what a manly man is -> what men strive to be/demonstrate; failure to achieve hegemonic status, may force men to resort to violence to demonstrate manhood; women who engage in masculine behaviors are judged

Two separate hypothesis: chivalry and evil woman hypothesis

Question 24

Chivalry and Monitoring (feminist criminology):

Answer 24

Chivalry hypothesis- belief that women are too frail to withstand CJ punishments; giving a lighter sentence; taking into account pregnancy and likely primary caregiver to children; motherhood is a consideration we do not see for men

Juvenile justice system monitors girls minor behavior -> picked up for truancy, but more likely to be released

Question 25

Sexual and moral policing of girls (feminist criminology):

Answer 25

Evil woman hypothesis-> women are inherently deceitful and succubus; given a harsher sentence than men/boys; especially, if she acts or is acting more masculine

Sexualization of girls - punishment for sexual offense is overly harsh for girls; JJS will often catch girls and reprimand them for sexual activity

Question 26

Sexual and moral policing of girls (feminist criminology):

Answer 26

Evil woman hypothesis-> women are inherently deceitful and succubus; given a harsher sentence than men/boys; especially, if she acts or is acting more masculine

Sexualization of girls - punishment for sexual offense is overly harsh for girls; JJS will often catch girls and reprimand them for sexual activity

Question 26

Sexual and moral policing of girls (feminist criminology):

Answer 26

Evil woman hypothesis-> women are inherently deceitful and succubus; given a harsher sentence than men/boys; especially, if she acts or is acting more masculine

Sexualization of girls - punishment for sexual offense is overly harsh for girls; JJS will often catch girls and reprimand them for sexual activity

Question 27

female liberation a good or bad thing (feminist criminology)

Answer 27

Adler suggested that as women become more socially liberated, their behavior would mimic those of men -> social constraints that prevented women from engaging in crime would no longer be there

Reality is that we have seen little to no chance in female offending and a decline in male offending -> release of the social burden of bread winning

Question 28

intersection of sexuality (feminist criminology):

Answer 28

Feminist scholars also promote and discuss the marginalization of sexual orientation -> 10% of population is LGBTQ+ but represent 13% of those in JJS

Non-heteronomartive or non-binary people are frequently target of violent behavior -> how we do and understand gender can motive behavior

Criticism of second (and even third wave) feminist for being there voice of white, heteronormative women

Question 29

power-control theory?

Answer 29

• crime is a function of class position (power) and family function (control) -> we replicate the power structures we have to work, at home
• paternalistic families -> father is traditional breadwinner, mother supervises/control children in home; girls are taught to fear rule breaking and boys are allowed greater freedom; role exit behaviors - running away can be the only ways for girls to escape oppression

Question 30

egalitarian homes:

Answer 30

In homes where husbands and wives share power at home and workplace -> daughters are provided the same freedom as brothers; delinquency is equal between boys and girls

Prediction that middle class girls are most likely to engage in delinquency

Anticipated the freedoms provided to sons and daughters are the same in two-headed egalitarian homes as they are in single-female headed households

Question 31

criticisms of power-control theory:

Answer 31

Prediction of what happens in a maternalistic household is lacking

Do not find that upper class girls engage in more criminal offending than lower class girls

No everyone replicates workplace environment

Theory may not be applicable to non-white population

Question 32

feminist criminology and victimology:

Answer 32

Feminist scholarship has boosted interest into the field of victimology (study of victims)

Victim experience can help us to understand the effects and motivations for offending

Victimology is a new area of study, but positive influences are already being seen

Question 33

influence of victimology:

Answer 33

Understanding trauma - tonic immobility and chronology

Promotes informed victim advocacy - community funded programming for victims and safe houses

Changes to investigation - SANE nurses and police interrogations

Question 34

social reaction theory (labeling) - symbolic interactional approach:

Answer 34

People’s action, reactions, and changes to individual identity, self-concept, values, and attitudes only exist in context of social interactions with others -> how we understand the world and our realities of it are the result of the interactions we have with others; involves, language, body movement, face-to-face encounters

Doing gender

Question 35

master status (labeling theory):

Answer 35

When someone asks you to define who you are, what you say-> most people list roles; mother, daughter, student, etc.

These roles are statuses and descriptors of self-identity

Master status - predominate roles/identities

Minor status - roles that are more fluid, less important

Question 36

Cooleey’s Looking glass self (labeling theory):

Answer 36

Our self-concept is a reflection of others conceptions of us - boy who is labeled as a delinquent by teachers and parents

We are or become what others think we are - boy will become delinquent because of the assumption that he is

Question 37

self fulfilling prophecy:

Answer 37

If people interact with us enough in a certain way then we begin to take on that role/characteristics

The application of labels tells us how we are viewed: we internalize these labels and then become them

Question 38

labeling sources:

Answer 38

External labels can come from two sources

formal - those given to us by those associated or who represent a larger social institution; ex: teacher, police officer, religious leader

Informal - labels given by people who do not represent a social institution; ex: parents, friends, co-workers

Question 39

labeling scope:

Answer 39

Explains the effect of official sanction or stigmatizing label on crime and deviance -> labeling someone deviant challenges master status

Opposite of deterrence theory - deterrence -> people are deterred by “bad” labels; labeling -> formal label should INCREASE offending (reflect on who they are based on what society labels them)

Question 40

how labeling works:

Answer 40

There is an indirect effect of the label on behavior

Label forces us to renegotiate our self-concept -> only when we internalize deviant labels may behavior follow; but there is no guarantee of deviant outcomes

Labels are most likely to be internalized when labeling source is an agent of social control -> we have little power to resist the consequences of formal label’s; ex-con is very sticky

Question 41

two main ways labeling works?

Answer 41

Primary Deviance:
- Describes sporadic and inconsistent offending
- Individuals engage in crime but may/not be caught - if they are caught but not labeled -> primary deviance; if not caught there is no possibility of being labeled -> primary deviance
- Deviant offense and behavior does not define the person -> deviant behavior will continue to be sporadic; will have little influence on the major identity or life trajectory of the person

Secondary Deviance:
- Deviance that occurs after being given deviant label
- If no criminal behavior but labeled -> secondary deviance
- If they are caught and labeled -> secondary deviance
- Internalization of deviant label to self-identity (self-fulfilling prophecy)
- Explains the maintenance of deviant behavior -> chronic and potentially escalating criminal behavior

Question 42

dual effects of labels

Answer 42

Primary deviance:
-Deviant label = dependent variable (outcome)
-Who gets labeled as deviant?
-Certain people/behaviors result in being labeled deviant

Secondary deviance:
-Deviant label = independent variable (cause)
-What effect does deviant label have on future deviance?
-Deviant labels cause continuation of deviance via internalization

Question 43

conflict theory perspective:

Answer 43

Those with power will label those without and implement rules/regulations -> labels differentiate the haves and have-nots; stigmatizing labels are a way the powerful marginalize the powerless example such as immigrant rapists

By characterizing the powerless as evil, marginalization is legitimized -> generalizability fallacy, using evidentiary behavior of a few to generalize to a larger group - example: illegal immigrant rape is systemic to Mexican or latinx culture

Question 44

who gets labeled:

Answer 44

Chambliss

Saints and Roughnecks -> saints are middle class boys; roughnecks are lower class boys

Engage in same level of deviance -> but roughneck arrested more often; saints commit crimes away from home (able to avoid formal sanctioning)

Result is that roughneck ends up with CJS histories while Saints go to college and have successful careers

Question 45

Questions of interest on labeling theory:

Answer 45

Who applies the label and to whom is it applied? - agents of social control impose labels on less powerful; determination of who is label is not always based on criminal behavior, but WHO they are

What factors make stigmatizing label more likely? - those who are powerful are less likely to be label regardless of criminal engagement

Question 46

Issues with labeling theory:

Answer 46

• Early scholars took issue with labeling -> did not describe deviant behavior; assumption that labels are coercive - taking away free choice
• People naturally want to think the best of themselves - they will naturally want to reject deviant label

-Labeling ignores other influences to initiation and maintenance of deviance behavior

-Focus on the label ignores importance of actual behavior - assumes who you are matters than what you have done; people are generally labeled because of behavior; ex: probable cause for arrest, beyond a reasonable doubt for conviction

-Behavior determines label - felons are only labeled as such if they have committed a felony; any consequences from label is deserved

Question 47

support for labeling theory:

Answer 47

Studies show that early entrance into the justice system or arrest increases youth delinquency - official processing and detention sentencing of youth significantly increases likelihood of CJS involvement in adulthood

Youth who can evade deviant labels are more likely to cease delinquent behavior - JJS places heavy focus on diversion to avoid formal processing, fewer than 25% of youth enter detention facilities; those that do only stay for a short period

Focus on interactions and internal changes to self-image are unique to labeling -> self-image is an important predictor of behavior; explains the age-crime curve - as we age other life events begin to define who we are beyond criminal offending

Reentry is key to reducing recidivism -> sticky label of ex-con often prevents individuals from obtaining employment or reliable housing; ex- felony check box on job applications

Question 48

Labeling in schools:

Answer 48

Aptitude testing that labels based on IQ or learning disability - children in special education are treated as having diminished capacity

Implicit bias in teaching - teachers often give more attention and care to students they think are brighter

Behavioral labeling -> children with behavioral issues are often placed in detention, special programs, or alternative schools

Question 49

Connecting Labeling theory to others:

Answer 49

Focus on internalization process

Interaction between being labeled and acceptance is not instant or linear -> differential association and reinforcement likely have an effect; initial deviance is likely the result of imitation or predisposition; type of deviant offense is likely based on opportunity; deviance is easier to commit and avoid label in places that are highly disorganized

Question 50

labeling theory assumption

Answer 50

People interpret themselves through the interaction and symbols with others

How we view ourselves will dictate our behavior

Question 51

labeling theory concepts

Answer 51

Primary deviance
Secondary deviance
Looking glass self
Self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 52

labeling theory propositions:

Answer 52

People who engage in a primary deviant offense will go undetected or unlabeled

Those who are caught or labeled as deviant, regardless of behavior will engage in secondary deviance

Societal reaction to primary deviance will result in a change in the looking glass self and alter self-image as criminal

Secondary deviance is the self fulfilling prophecy of one internalizing and accepting criminal label

Question 53

reintegrative shaming (theory) originated

Answer 53

Braithwaite:
When does the criminal label result in criminal self concept and future criminal behavior?

Labeling theory does not elaborate on when or why a person will adopt a criminal label

When does the criminal label result in preventing crime? - deterrence does work some of the time; positive labeling works some of the time

Question 54

reintegrative shaming theory concepts

Answer 54

CORE CONCEPTS: Shaming, Reintegration, and Disintegration

Question 55

shaming (reintegrative shaming concept):

Answer 55

Social disapproval with intent or effect of producing shame/remorse

Shaming acts to prevent crime in contexts characterized by social approval

People are often deterred by shame it is not a feeling we like

Can be good or bad

Does shame = stigmatization

Shame focuses on one negative characteristics of a person

Stigma is when a shameful characteristics comes to define a person

Stigmatization => disintegrative shaming

Question 56

disintegrative shaming (reintegrative shaming concept)

Answer 56

Shame with no goal of reintegrating offender into community
Labeled with no efforts to remove label & restore previous image

Question 57

reintegrative shaming (concept of reintegrative shaming)

Answer 57

Shaming with goal of reconciling offender back into community

Formal de-labeling of the offender as a deviant

Shame is targeted at the behavior not the person

Enhancing social control influences on individual to avoid socially disapproved behavior

Question 58

indirect effect

Answer 58

Reintegrative shaming and labeling have an indirect effect on crime -> other intervening variables -> intervening variables are drawn from several other criminological theories i.e. social learning, anomie/strain, social disorganization, social bonding

Question 59

Explain indirect causes:

Answer 59

Associating with deviant others (differential association) which means labeled due to guilt by association (secondary deviance); evade label (primary deviance)

Take advantage of illegitimate opportunities (strain): if labeled, like-minded others will seek you out and offer continuation of secondary deviance; if unlabeled, opportunity for crime is limited and sporadic

Question 60

effective reintegrative shaming:

Answer 60

Interdependency in attachment and commitment to conventional activities (social bonding) - reintegration works best when individuals bond is restrengthened; buy-in to societal rules

Existing in a communitarian/close-knit neighborhood (social disorganization) - socially organized communities praise conventional behavior and notice antisocial behavior quicker

Question 61

proposition (reintegrative shaming)

Answer 61

Shameful labels can be a deterrent or incentive to future criminal behavior

Shameful labels that persist beyond criminal punishment will lead to disintegrative shaming and result in increased offending

Shameful labels that cease after after criminal punishment will result in reintegrative shaming and decreases recidivism

Communities that work to restore individual labels are most effective when socially organized, focus on increasing individual attachment and commitment, and limit opportunity for future criminal activity

Question 62

translating to restorative justice:

Answer 62

Reintegrative shaming provides a middle ground for labeling and deterrence theory

Focuses on community and restoring people back into society

Healing and reconciliation between offender, community, and victim,

Restoration programming seen at all levels of justice system

Ex: diversion and treatment programming

Question 63

restorative justice:

Answer 63

Crime impacts the individual, victim, community (community ownership over the presence and desistance of crime

JJS (JUVENILE) - sentencing circles: plan of repair discussed by juvenile, victim, probation officer, teacher, parents

Diversion tactics:
- station house adjustment - prior to formal filing, agreement between police, juvenile, and parents
- pre-adjudication probation: trial probation, if successful charges dropped
- treatment diversion: identifying and diversting dependency cases or children in need of services (CINS)

Question 64

challenges to restorative justice:

Answer 64

What is restoring to one community/person may change from place-to-place

Defining success and what is “restored” is vague (political ideologies often get in the way; we are okay to do this in JJS, but MUCH controversy in CJS)

Benefits of restoration may be short lived if youth goes back to same environment that pushed them into criminal activity

Question 65

the gluecks experiment (LIFE COURSE AND DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES):

Answer 65

Conducted a longitudinal study, following a group of male delinquents for more than 30yrs

They collected biological, psychological, and sociological conditions of these me

Found that the most persistent offenders had risk factors in common: lower intelligence, lack of emotional ties to parents, antisocial personality

Gluecks was a married couple that conducted the experiment

Question 66

other early works (LIFE COURSE AND DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES)

Answer 66

Wolfgang work on crime in Philadelphia revealed that two things 1) a small group of offenders appeared to engage in crime chronically, 2) this small group was responsible for a large proportion of crime in the city

Collectively these studies introduced the idea that time and age mattered to the explanation of crime

Question 67

three types of developmental theories:

Answer 67

Life course- dynamic process
Latent trait- master trait propensity
Trajectory- multiple pathways

Question 68

Population heterogeneity v state dependence:

Answer 68

Core question: are the differences between people due to individual trait differences or differences in social environment?

Population heterogeneity - belief that differences in stable trait predicts criminal behavior, ex: self-control

State dependence- belief that we change and are shaped by experiences over time, ex: social learning (reinforcement)

Question 69

general assumption (LIFE COURSE AND DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES)

Answer 69

That life experiences and age development change interactively with our behavior

Questions of interest: What leads to offending? What leads to persistence in offending? What leads to the desistence in offending?

Question 70

age-graded theory originated and focused on:

Answer 70

Sampson and Laub (1993); they reexamined the Gluecks data

Focus on early childhood experiences over time

Developmental social bonding theory- experience of turning points/life events; cumulative trajectory of risks or protective factors

Question 71

definitions (age-graded theory)

Answer 71

Turning point- pivotal moments in the life course that can change one’s life course trajectory from conforming to criminogenic (or vice versa)

Cumulative disadvantage- the experience of a negative turning point increases the likelihood of experiencing more

Question 72

turning points (age-graded theory):

Answer 72

Military- military men were less likely to have a deviant trajectory
Marriage- protective factor that decreases criminal motivation
Employment- those who are steadily employed commit less crime

Question 73

social capital (age-graded theory)

Answer 73

According to sampson and laub marriage, employment, and military service are all ways to attain social capital

Social capital are the relationship we have to others and institutions (the greater social capital the stronger the social bond)

Question 74

Review of age-graded theory:

Answer 74

Assumes that people are naturally wanting to engage in criminal activity

Continued interaction and changes to the social bond reflect criminal engagement - older adolescents have the most freedom and time; traditional life transitions, such as marriage, military service, and employment help to re-bond individuals to society

Question 75

empirical finding (age-graded theory)

Answer 75

One criticism of age-graded theory is that it is based on data of men from nearly 50 years ago

There are limited longitudinal studies that are able to fully test this theory (ex: Rochester youth development study)

Question 76

studies on marriage (age-graded theory):

Answer 76

Social obligations of a marriage push individuals toward conforming behaviors- even poor marriage appear to be better for limiting crime

For men and women offending goes up after divorce can be a traumatic event that increase future offending

Question 77

revisiting self-control theory (latent trait theory)?

Answer 77

Latent trait theories focus on propensities for criminal offending -> environmental changes have less influence on behavior such as self-control

Best example of a latent trait theory is Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control (General theory of crime) theory -> biosocial theories are also sometimes considered latent trait theories

Question 78

additional notes on self-control (latent trait theory)

Answer 78

Gottfredson and Hirschi disagree with the life course and developmental approaches

Propensity for criminal activity is not the same as criminal acts-> it is possible to have a high propensity but engage in low-moderate offending; once set self-control should influence ALL behavior

Question 79

trajectories perspective? (trajectory theories)

Answer 79

Recognize that there a numerous pathways into and out of criminal offending -> goal is to understand what risk and protective factors do people of certain trajectory groups have in common

Trajectory is an individual pathway of behavior over the life course -> we can group people into trajectory groupings based on commonalities

Tick mark on your life, and at your age will mark if you committed a criminal offense (trajectory) and it is a graph

Question 80

types of trajectories? (Trajectory theories)

Answer 80

• abstainers/nonstarters
• early onset
• adolescent onset
• late bloomers
• chronic offenders

Question 81

abstainers (types of trajectories)

Answer 81

Drawing from control theories, abstainers represents the conformists (identifications and focus on this group may help to understand protective factors effects)

Question 82

adolescent offenders (onset) (type of trajectories)

Answer 82

Adolescent offenders are typically the focus of research (however, they are normative among offending trajectories)

Question 83

early onset and late bloomers (type of trajectories)

Answer 83

• research on early onset shows this groups to be most at risk for becoming chronic offenders and/or engaging in more serious forms of offending (early childhood experiences can increase cumulative disadvantage)
• Late bloomers are a new group that describes those who begin criminal offending in the mid- to late- 20s (challenges over the maturity gap may be to blame)
• Not engaging in criminal offense and starts commit crimes during their college years
• People who can’t make a good jump from mom and dad to living on their own

Question 84

chronic offenders (type of trajectories)

Answer 84

• individuals who engage in persistent offending

-Individuals who engage in the highest rate of offending

-Chronic offenders are more likely to experience life failures and have negative early childhood experiences (some argue that there are no such as chronic offenders, as even this group will eventually desist)

Question 85

Loebeer’s trajectories for career criminals?

Answer 85

Authority conflict pathway -> problematic children who will continue to defy legal and social authority

Covert pathway -> individuals who begin with concealable or minor forms of delinquent

Overt pathway -> aggressive by nature and will continue this aggression throughout adolescence

Question 86

moffitt’s dual taxonomy? (research on trajectories theory)

Answer 86

Result of research on a longitudinal birth cohort study of girls and boys in Dunedin, New Zealand

Moffitt is a developmental psychologist by training

Found that youth tended to follow one of two life trajectories (life course persistent and adolescent limited )

Question 87

adolescent limited (trajectories theory)?

Answer 87

Vast majority of people will follow this trajectory

Typical theoretical factors influence rise and fall of deviance

Developmentally 14-24 years old is a transition period

Question 88

life course persistent?

Answer 88

Chronic lifetime offenders

Most likely to crime into contact with the criminal justice system

Problem behavior, mental deficiencies, physical health issues

Question 89

Desistence (concept that is only discussed in trajectory) -

Answer 89

Desistence means to stop behavior

Nearly all trajectory pathways lead to desistance -> is desistence normal? Does evidence of desistence contradict latent trait theories?

How do we define desistence? (temporary stop for one year desistence?)

Question 90

share ending (trajectories theories)

Answer 90

Gottfredson and hirschi suggest that focus on desistance is unimportant (those with low self-control will continue impulsive acts even if not criminal

Declines in offending mirror the physical and mental declines of the body

Question 91

evaluating developmental theories? (trajectory)

Answer 91

Evaluating these theories is challenging due to longitudinal data, rich and detailed data, advanced statistical techniques

The strong support for self-control is in opposition to many scholars who feel that changes to social and environmental conditions will guide individual trajectories

There is no universal agreement on what the trajectory groups are

Question 92

advantages of life course/developmental theories?

Answer 92

Policy implications focus on multidimensional and adaptive response to crime (targeted programing and dosage can be highly effective)

Programs like boys and girls club and inadvertently reduce criminal offending by disrupting trajectories (we do not reinvent the wheel, just refine it)

Question 93

what is fast track and its impact?

Answer 93

Intervention program framed by a developmental approach and focus on: low income and high crime communities; high risk families where parents may be ill-equipped; aggressive children who may be rejected from peers and teachers

Throughout the late adolescence those placed in fast track were significantly less likely to have conduct issues and less likely to be arrested

The program was successfully in which that it focus on one specific groups and created ways to that focuses on helping the children from deterring to criminal behaviors