quizzes Flashcards

Question

What is it called When somebody tells you something E.g. how to start a web browser or that orcas are mammals It can be read or heard aloud We can get facts by figuring them out but this is better described as reasoning or interference

Answer 1

Testimonial Learning

Answer 2

Mentorship

Answer 3

Operant Conditioning

Answer 4

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 5

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 6

Positive Punishment

Answer 7

Negative Punishment

Answer 8

Classical Conditioning

Answer 9

Hippocampus

Answer 10

Procedural Memory

Answer 11

Genetic Learning

Answer 12

Individual Learning

Answer 13

The baldwin Effect

Answer 14

Cultural Learning

Answer 15

Perception

Answer 16

Echolocation

Answer 17

the process of creating perceptions from sound.

Answer 18

the outer ear

Answer 19

localization

Answer 20

Acoustical energy(sound waves) vibrate the eardrums(in air) or bones(underwater or through your own body)(as when you hear your voice)

Answer 21

The process of creating the perception of smell.

Answer 22

Territory Fertility Ant pheromone traces (food this way)

Answer 23

Gustation (taste)

Answer 24

Chemical receptors

Answer 25

salty, sour, bitter, sweet and umami(savoury)

Answer 26

lots of factors like temperature

Answer 27

Haptics (touch)

Answer 28

Introspection

Answer 29

Atypical Senses

Answer 30

Vestubular system

Answer 31

Proprioception

Answer 32

How you know how your body parts are moving. Sensors for this is in the inner ear and in muscles

Answer 33

Perceptions of height is different from width

Answer 34

Change blindness

Answer 35

Motion Sickness

Answer 36

(we can’t see in the dark)): Rays of light emanating from the eye in combination with light in the world allows us to see

Answer 37

Visual perception is accomplished by rays of light reflected from objects into the eyes Wavelengths get absorbed and the remaining ones show color. Color is reflected light

Answer 38

Light is reflected into the eye and focused on the retina Light stimulates the rod and cone receptors Transduction of light into electricity

Answer 39

100 times more sensitive than cones Information is received from pooling from many rod cells resulting in a loss of vision acuity Convergence of information makes peripheral vision sensitive to movement. You see things that your eye can later focus on Ex. you can see a test but just looking at the center of it but can’t actually read it

Answer 40

Correspond to short wavelengths(blue) Medium wavelengths(green) Long wavelengths(red)

Answer 41

Some people have a 4th type(only in certain women) Not entirely useful since they can’t explain it(don’t have words for it). Tv has 3 while they’re used to seeing 4 Tetrachromats

Answer 42

visual acuity

Answer 43

Size(knowing how big things are)(Contextualize something compared to things around it)

Answer 44

perspective

Answer 45

When one thing is behind another(podium is blocking body so he must be behind, not he has no legs)

Answer 46

closer things are more saturated. Texture gradients)(Atmosphere takes away saturation. As things move into the distance they get less saturated and more blue

Answer 47

If you know you have to focus on something a different way it tells you if it's closer or further away(the act of focusing tells))

Answer 48

Including motion and binocular vision) Each eye sees slightly different spatial information and transmits these differences to the brain. The brain then uses the discrepancies between the two eyes to judge distance and depth(Looking at thumb with one eye and then the other. It tends to jump. Holding it further away makes it jump less)(When looking at things further away you can’t tell which ones further away because the sight from both eyes is the same + can’t focus(perceptual infinity))

Answer 49

ventral ‘perceptual’ stream computes a detailed map of the world from visual input, which can then be used for cognitive operations, and the dorsal 'action' stream transforms incoming visual information to the requisite egocentric (head-centered) coordinate system for skilled motor planning

Answer 50

Where” pathway; associated with motion, representation of object locations and control of the eyes and arms, especially when visual information is used to guide saccades or reaching

Answer 51

“What” pathway; associated with form recognition and object representation. It is also associated with storage of long term memory

Answer 52

A quick, simultaneous movement of both eyes between two or more phases of fixation in the same direction. In contrast, in smooth pursuit movements, the eyes move smoothly instead of in jumps.

Answer 53

Pandemonium model of perception

Answer 54

template matching perception

Answer 55

Pixels are more active if something is in the space. These collect and the thing after it collects that's chosen is based on what's more active(if its a 3 then the 3 will have more active pixels than the 4)

Answer 56

Bunch of fields coming together to work on a problem

Answer 57

psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics

Answer 58

neuroscience (important now but not in the past)

Answer 59

education, anthropology (should be apart of cog sci but isnt)

Answer 60

Philosophy

Answer 61

usually big questions Methods: thinking & writing(thought experiments, conceptual analysis, argumentation, theorizing from evidence from other fields and common sense observation

Answer 62

Don’t pay enough attention to empirical studies(Assumes something is true when it isn’t) Sometimes think that the existence of a word implies the existence of it’s intended referent(If it has a word it exists) Concerned with too many unimportant problems

Answer 63

Philosophy of the mind, Philosophy of science and philosophy of language

Answer 64

Philosophy of mind

Answer 65

Philosophy of Science

Answer 66

Philosophy of language

Answer 67

Psychology

Answer 68

natural minds(things we did not make) Methods: lab experiments, stat analysis, computer cognitive modeling

Answer 69

psychology

Answer 70

Not enough model building(You can’t play 20 questions with nature and win) Dust bowl empiricism(not enough theory, no theoretical psychologists) Methodologically limited(cognitive science is possible because psychology won’t innovate to embrace methods of other fields) Underestimates the complexity of language

Answer 71

cognitive psychology, human-computer interaction psychology, evolutionary psychology, psycholinguistics and comparative psychology

Answer 72

Basic research into human internal mental processes

Answer 73

How people psychologically interact with artifacts(ex. User interfaces)

Answer 74

Studying language with experiments(how we use words, how we make language)

Answer 75

Animal cognition, sometimes comparing it to humans

Answer 76

Individual instances of subjective, conscious experience. Examples of qualia include the perceived sensation of pain of a headache, the taste of wine, as well as the redness of an evening sky.

Answer 77

Linguistics

Answer 78

spoken language(+ sign language). Not for computer/animal language, not written language Methods: sound analysis, grammar creation, corpus analysis

Answer 79

Have models that don’t match with how language is generated and don’t respect other research with the mind Don’t know what's going on in the other fields

Answer 80

Phonology, morphology, syntax, semantic and pragmatics

Answer 81

How sounds are organized and used in language

Answer 82

How sound and meaning interact in words

Answer 83

How sentences may be put together in a language(ex. SVO vs SOV)

Answer 84

Meaning in language(ex. Difference between each and every)

Answer 85

How sentences interact with context to change meaning(Can you pass the salt. Sure(doesn’t pass))

Answer 86

Computer science

Answer 87

how mental processes can work on machines and how computers can interact with humans Methods: building and testing computer programs

Answer 88

Insufficiently concerned with natural intelligence(ignore research and don’t care if it resembles animals) Overly optimistic about the future of AI

Answer 89

AI and Computer human interaction

Answer 90

Building mental processes with computer programs. Understanding and creating mental systems

Answer 91

Designing computer interfaces that people can use

Answer 92

Neuroscience

Answer 93

how brain processes information and creates cognitive processes Methods: neuroimaging, single cell recording, anatomical observation, computer modeling, pharmaceutical effects, genetic analysis

Answer 94

Underestimate the complexity of language Learn too far towards nature in nature/nurture Dismissive of other approaches Can’t shed light on other processes

Answer 95

the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university

Answer 96

how people learn and how we can design education to help them do it Methods: naturalistic observation of case studies, empirical studies

Answer 97

Case studies are useless Too applied and not telling enough about cognitive processes Controlled studies are poorly done(expensive & hard) Only deal with one part of cognition

Answer 98

Anthropology

Answer 99

ocial organisation, human culture, enculturation, shared knowledge, situated cognition Methods: field work, ethnographic observation and interviewing. Empathis on qualitative study

Answer 100

Tend to be too far on nurture side for nature vs nurture Research is too qualitative(too ambiguous), too expensive and does not generalize enough to be useful They are “splitters”(this is all different) rather than “lumpers”(put things together) Ex. something is true. Not in this culture, not in this culture

Answer 101

Cognitive science

Answer 102

study of minds and thinking especially at the information processing level Methodological definition: applies methodology from multiple disciplines to multiple problems from the disciplines

Answer 103

People need to process info and summarize(too much can be written on computer) More distracted by web You can then cut up your notes and turn them into flashcards

Answer 104

Guessing answer before seeing it helps you remember Testing memory

Answer 105

If you try to teach someone the shape of a continent via ‘spoken word’, just because someone is an auditory learner does not mean they can learn the shape of a continent by being told… They need to see it because it is a visual thing

Answer 106

at least 20 hours a week

Answer 107

Every time you switch there's residue from previous task affecting the new one It feels like you can do it(you get dopamine) but performance drops

Answer 108

Project lists are projects that will take you more then 20 minutes so they are added to a list, they are helpful because it makes it easier to organize themselves

Answer 109

help you remember what your studying

Answer 110

The key to success is structuring time. At the start of every day grab a piece of paper and mark off every 30 minutes Happier and less stressed if you schedule some free time too

Answer 111

Study in lots of places to increase retention in multiple environments If only interested in grades then study in the exam room(not recommended) Memorizing things just before sleeping helps you remember them better

Answer 112

Cognitive science specialises in a certain level of explanation, the cognitive level

Answer 113

These are all the levels that learning can be done at: Low level = small and detailed High level = broad & complex The high level will be 1 and numbers after that will be going lower

Answer 114

The culture itself is learning Fijian Food Taboo When pregnant you can’t eat certain types of foods to reduce food poisoning The culture itself is learning: people don’t know why they do it they just know they do it The people who followed this outlived the people who didn’t

Answer 115

Certain group behavior phenomena like going on strike are difficult to explain with individual psychology

Answer 116

After eating a certain kind of food people get sick If you eat french fries then throw up you don’t want to eat french fries anymore Individual learning

Answer 117

individual behavior cannot be explained by using sociology We need it in addition to sociological level because some behaviors are not heavily influenced by their social context (ex. Baby face recognition(when shown a pattern and a face babies look at the face)) We need it in addition to the cognitive level because we need a place for non-causal, statistical models

Answer 118

One theory is that the mind does what it does by firing little information processing rules called productions. It works on the basis of: “If you are hungry, eat something” or “If the novel is in front of you, then start reading it” The way productions work is that if something good or bad happens, the productions made to get to that state of affairs is made more or less likely to occur in the future Cognitive level deals with information, how it is processed etc Behavior may not be all you need to study a person and the things he does

Answer 119

There are certain things that become very hard to explain with just psychology: - Ex: multiplication (Mental multiplication vs abacus, the kinds of errors/length reflect the way the person was taught to do it) - (biology level) We also need it because mental states and processes are defined functionally and NOT anatomically (Ex: you and I are both happy to be here but our mental states are diff) Neurons can be differently built based on order you learned things (ex. Americans learn president first and associate related things to that) The cognitive level is the information processing level. Cognitive science prefers descriptions of information and how it is represented and changed. Ex. cognitive scientists have theorized that individual memories have “activation levels” that determine how easily they can be retrieved from memory Another way to say this is that Cognitive scientists like to describe the workings of the mind at a level so detailed that one could get a computer program to execute the task in the same way (processes, algorithms...) (note its computer program not computer, programs are instructions while computers are hardware with nothing to do with minds

Answer 120

Synapses are the spaces between neurons where learning happens. Synapses get more efficient with repeated use(Hebb theory) Neurons that fire together wire together. This is how associations are learned(Hebb theory)

Answer 121

We need it in addition to the cognitive level because sometimes the biological structure influences behavior in ways that the information processing perspective can’t explain Ex. number/color synesthesia (the number 2 might be green, the number 1 might be red(connection that wasn’t supposed to be true)) We need it in addition to the chemical level because certain brain structures appear to be used for particular things(ex. The hippocampus and short term memory)

Answer 122

Synaptic changes in taste receptors to tolerate bitter foods(habituation). Children often vomit when eating bitter foods that adults enjoy(happens in part to synaptic changes

Answer 123

We need it in addition to the biological level because chemicals can affect behavior(ex. Drug effects) We need it in addition to the physical level because the physical level doesn’t tell us much about human behavior

Answer 124

Bottom of all fields. Smallest most detailed field there is. Bottom of science Not a good level of description for learning Some people believe that quantum effects are directly related to consciousness but most cognitive scientists don’t take the position seriously

Answer 125

If we can successfully make casual predictions using the ontology of that level Ontology: set of things said to exist Ex. two kinds of people in the world Ex. periodic table is an ontology of atoms

Answer 126

They believe the regularities found at high levels will be deductible from the low level regularities One form of reductionism (explanations of higher fields will be replaced by and explanation from the fields below them) “Why study anything else when physics can explain everything” This is not endorsed because everything is made of stuff physics talks about but can’t be explained with how quarks and muons interact

Answer 127

Food: We eat because it satisfies our hunger and it tastes good Sex: It gives us pleasure

Answer 128

Food: We eat to stay alive Sex: We need to procreate and carry on our genes Jealousy: to help protect us from losing partners/mates

Answer 129

Proximate explanations focus on things that occur during the life of an individual. Ultimate explanations focus on things that occur in populations over many generations

Answer 130

Holds that mental states and processes are determined by their functional properties(ex what they do) rather than physical anatomy properties People, animals, computer programs, distributed cognitive systems The play hamlet doesn't have a height but it exists Opposite of functionalism is called identity theory

Answer 131

A set of symbols that can be arranged in certain ways includes computer code, human natural language etc. Can be in grammatical ways(ways that make sense) or ungrammatical ways

Answer 132

a complex code by which agents can communicate information excludes things non humans do(bird calls)(not complex enough)

Answer 133

created by cultures of humans(not invented by someone in particular)

Answer 134

Artificial language for communication with computers, typically lacking in ambiguity I saw pat with a telescope. Did you see him standing with it or did you see him while using it Human writes code which computer reads. It follows the human’s instructions

Answer 135

It has a structure but that structure is implicit(you understand the grammar unconsciously but can’t articulate it

Answer 136

International phonetic alphabet A list of all sounds that humans make in language including ones we don’t use in english “a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language”

Answer 137

Relationship of languages to meaning Some english verbs have manner Rolled, slid, limped(all motion from one place to another)

Answer 138

morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.

Answer 139

Ant can only be used with words of latin origin You can't use it if its blocked(already used with something else) Cooker can’t exist due to the existence of cook

Answer 140

The set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, usually including word order Intransitive((of a verb or a sense or use of a verb) not taking a direct object, e.g. look in look at the sky) Patty jumped what? Doesn't make sense Patty jumped Patty jumped over the pig Transitive((of a verb or a sense or use of a verb) able to take a direct object (expressed or implied), e.g. saw in he saw the donkey) Patty hit what? *Patty hit (ungrammatical to say) Patty hit the button Requiring complements Patty put what where? *Patty put *Patty put the book Patty put the book back

Answer 141

Also called “zoosemiotics” Works through gesture, expression, gaze following, vocalisation, olfactory communication and electric coloration Function: dominance, courtship, ownership, food alert, alarm, metacommunication

Answer 142

Bees have a waggle dance to show where food is as an angle to the sun (sees it, flies back, dances location) When trapping a bee in a dark box for 30 minutes and then letting it back into the hive without seeing the sun, it accounts for the rotation of the earth(evolved to know passage of time and how to adjust)

Answer 143

Logic is a formal, normative system of reasoning. Symbolic logic specifies ways that sentences can be represented ambiguously For all x if cat(x) then mammal(x) But typical logic is limited in its semantics

Answer 144

Chomsky says that getting non humans to speak is like teaching bees to build beaver dams Speaking is as much of a human evolutionary trait as building dams is to beavers Linguists agree animals do not have a language. What they do is too primitive compared to english that it does not deserve a word

Answer 145

a hypothetical mental system, resembling language, in which concepts can be pictured and combined without the use of words

Answer 146

Theory that our minds use “mentalese” or a language of thought The fact that you can have trouble sometimes expressing what you want to say supports this view How could you know what you wanted to say if the internal language were the natural language This is controversial

Answer 147

Behavior maps directly from detectors on cell membrane to action There is no represented goal Our patellar reflex is like this Doctor hitting leg and you kick Brain is not involved Action comes from spinal cord

Answer 148

How your mind remembers how to do math, hit a ball and buy tickets is all stored in the basal ganglia

Answer 149

Habitual actions Not sensitive to reward Ex. driving home when you needed to see the doctor Habits are built through repetition Or conditioning Not goal based Some are instincts 40% of what we do is habit They add up: A $6 bubble tea a day is over $2k a year

Answer 150

The process by which goals or plans influence behaviour There are three main faculties: attention, working memory and goal management Subcategories: willpower, goals, will, rationalisation Weakness of will Didn't have enough will to overcome another part of the brain Rationalisation Coming up with reasons for why you did something after you already did it We don’t know why we did it and when asked we make a plausible answer Suppresses older brain areas “I ate more than I wanted to” Lizards don’t have this Peaks in humans in the 20s, older people are worse at ignoring distractions Also impaired by: Sleep deprivation, older age, stress and intoxication

Answer 151

Some actions can be done automatically, that is without cognitive control Walking, chewing Other actions can be done automatically because they are learned Tying shoes, driving It's easier to multitask with these

Answer 152

Many of the frontal areas have inhibitory connections to other areas Related to willpower Doing something not fun now for a reward later People with more willpower Are happier, healthier, make more money, live longer and get better grades

Answer 153

Tries to get you to do things that make you feel better and avoid things that make you feel worse Helps form habits, trying to optimize good feelings Has the wanting system and the liking system Compare the compulsion to check your phone vs a genuine expectation of pleasure to talk to someone(wanting vs liking)

Answer 154

Liking / Pleasure: Opioid system(and some others) Opiod drug gives you pleasure and short circuits the brain Hugging someone makes brain give pleasure normally

Answer 155

Wanting / Compulsion / Motivation system: Dopamine system Not always pleasurable Think of picking a scab or addictive behaviors You keep eating after you stop enjoying it Different from cortical wanting Which is goal driven Immediate urge to eat vs urge to graduate

Answer 156

Default mode network Makes you think of things irrelevant to your current environment Good things such as long term goals Bad things such as anxious thoughts Activation trade off with cognitive system

Answer 157

Habits are triggered by a perceived situation H: Humans you’re around A: Activity B: Bearings(where you are) I: Internal states(ex. hunger) T: Time of day It's easier to change habits when your life changes(ex. Going to university, breaking up or moving) because triggers change Use willpower until habits are set

Answer 158

Suppose youre studying for a test and you have your phone next to you. The material is a little boring Your phone rings. You try to ignore it but anxiety builds up. You can only relieve the anxiety by checking your phone Or your phone is on silent but you keep wondering what's going on and that's distracting. You want to attend to something more interesting

Answer 159

Interruptions from other goals and concerns(call doctor, bored and want to check phone) ->(down arrow) top down processing What am I doing now ^ bottom up processing Interruptions from the world(fire, phone chime, hear name

Answer 160

Over time, more and more people will respond to phone notifications immediately upon getting them This is terrible for productivity If you can avoid them you'll have a serious competitive advantage

Answer 161

Boredom drived more frequent task switching > Rapid, unpredictable Rewards > You get more easily bored Your mind is optimizing something that is not productivity

Answer 162

We are hungry for information We stay at one “information source” until we feel we aren’t getting much information from it We can feel this in a conversation Beware of “infinite scrolling” apps Boredom and anxiety drive us to new sources Boredom without current source Anxiety about what we're missing out on in another source Smartphones allow many sources all in one place, with low cost to switch to a new one

Answer 163

Turn off notifications. Not just sound “May I slow down your progress towards your goals so I can make money” Hide apps that alert you but putting them deep in folders on page 2 Power off your phone when you want to do deep work

Answer 164

Meditation(maybe) Exercise Especially cognitive exercise(tennis not running) Knowledge of how your mind works Get enough sleep Installing the right values Practicing willpower use Self-forgiveness The six second rule(made up by teacher, if you need to do something start it in at least 6 seconds) Makes you do it before your mind talks you into doing something else

Answer 165

Generally ambitious people are Better educated Make more money Have more prestige Extrinsic ambition(money, looking good, fame) Diminishing happiness Intrinsic ambition(community, self acceptance, health) Increased happiness Not living up to your standards can lead to misery

Answer 166

Alter habits by altering exposure to triggers Better: Replace with new habits for the same triggers (like… when you're grumpy take a walk)

Answer 167

Suppose you eat a doughnut everyday at 2 Ask yourself why you crave a doughnut The answer will help you come up with a satisfying replacement habit ○ Tired: nap, walk, or coffee ○ Bored: go talk to someone ○ Hungry: healthful snack ○ Grouchy: take a walk

Answer 168

More effective when you start when there is a major life change (breakup, moving, new semester) or a special date (birthday, new years resolution) Works better with a repeating specific cue “I will exercise every morning before breakfast” Is better than “sometime every day” Break it into small pieces that grow over time “Today i'll just put on my sneakers” Have a community

Answer 169

Punishment doesn’t work very well if you’re the one punishing yourself. Doesn’t last Reward works better: save something you love for when you’re done the thing you want to do more of “Hearthstone” Temptation bundling “Only watch tv on treadmill” Make it harder to do tempting things “20 seconds of food is enough” Changing environment is easier than willpowe

Answer 170

U shaped grammar curve Went, goed, went Kids memorize the words(went) then learns the rules(goed) then learns the exceptions(went) Gets worse at grammar when learning the rules and gets better after using it and learning the exceptions Universal grammar theory

Answer 171

a language as a child Ex. subject omission switch In spanish you can omit the subject of a sentence but in english you cannot

Answer 172

During this time children learn 2-4 words every day to their productive vocabulary and twice that for understanding That's understanding one word every one to two hours awake for years They are learning words that they don’t hear that day How is this possible? Recall understanding a joke you heard years ago

Answer 173

Sensorimotor (birth - 2) Preoperational (2 - 7) Concrete Operational(7 - 11) Formal Operational(11 - death)

Answer 174

Simple reflex action to symbolic processing Progress is seen on 3 fronts Adapting to and exploring the environment Focus on international behavior Understanding objects Object permanence Using symbols For example waving and gesturing

Answer 175

Use of symbols to represent objects and events Characterized by: egocentrism(difficulty in seeing world from others point of view) centration(narrowly focused thought)(only one part of a problem, no conservation of liquid) focuses on one thing

Answer 176

Mental operations to solve problems and reasoning: e.g. induction Problems thinking abstractly and hypothetically

Answer 177

Can apply mental operations to abstract entities Abstract and hypothetical thinking

Answer 178

The study of cognitive development at all Constructivism: that children are active participants in their own development Counter intuitive discoveries, puzzles that other scientists needed to solve

Answer 179

Underestimate infants, overestimates adolescents Bague on processes and change mechanics Does not account for variability(stages are not that clear cut) Underestimate social and cultural influences

Answer 180

Focus on social and cultural Intersubjectivity: shared understanding among participants of an activity Guided participation: Cognitive growth results from children's involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled Zone of proximal development: the difference between what a child can do alone from with help Scaffolding: teaching style that matches the amount of assistance to the learner’s needs Private speech: comments not directed to others but intended to help children regulate on their own Inner speech: thought, internalized private speech, serving the same function

Answer 181

Puppet show, parent is blindfolded Make the baby bored then make the bottle move on its own Some don’t react because they don’t know its impossible Distinguishing one primate from another where they would look the same to the eyes of an adult Babies start off with too many synapses. The brain then specialises based on what it needs(so we lose stuff like primate face recognition)

Answer 182

The marshmallow test. Kids either got a marshmellow now or could wait a bit and get two The kids who could pass it and get two were the ones good at distracting themselves They turned out to be more successful in the future Related to discounting the future?(present bias)

Answer 183

Children improve in the following ways: Better strategies Increased working memory Better inhibitory and executive function Increases automatic processing Increases speed of processing

Answer 184

At birth, infants possess specialized learning mechanisms for certain types (domains) of knowledge Allows for rapid acquisition of knowledge in specific domains (e.g., knowledge of objects) Ex: objects follow continuous paths through space (object continuity); two objects cannot occupy the same space (object solidity) Specialized learning mechanisms are present for domains that have evolutionary significance/importance Ex: knowledge of objects; knowledge of people (infer mental states); knowledge of plants and animals (avoid predators, etc) Things not evolutionary significant like calculus don’t have a specialised learning mechanism so it’s harder to learn

Answer 185

4.5 month olds have object permanence Objects can’t move in continuous paths Objects can’t move through other objects

Answer 186

12-5 month old can tell the difference between animate and inanimate objects Movement Growth But don’t consider plants to be alive until 7 or 8 years of age Internal parts Inheritance Illness Healing

Answer 187

Naive psychology (the human tendency to believe that we see the world around us objectively, and that people who disagree with us must be uninformed, irrational, or biased) Theory of mind at 2-5 years old False belief at 3-5 years old (believing that things aren’t true)

Answer 188

Occurs whenever these three things exist: Generation of diversity Makes everything in the group not the same Mutation Dna copies into offspring. Sometimes there's a copy error where the dna is not the same(most mutations are deadly) Crossover Sexually reproducing genetic combination of both parents Adds more diversity than mutation Selective reproduction Things don’t reproduce at the same rate Survival and reproduction of the fittest Fittest: being able to thrive in the environment (differential reproduction) Transmitted change Offspring gets taught aspects Genetic Taught Imitated

Answer 189

Evolved digital creatures to perform tasks like getting control of a cube Evolution was coming up with things that the programmers never intended One creature beat up the opponent to keep them away from the cube Computers always surprise programmers No entities came up with the ways to get closer to the cubes The programmers set it up so the three conditions were met

Answer 190

Natural selection Competitions in species Sexual selection Choosing who to mate with Artificial selection Ex. breeding Plant breeding, dog breeding Humans are the selective force Selects which entities get to reproduce and which ones don’t Peacocks have bright colors because it shows they can survive even with bright colors(means they have good genes and they get mates) Life started from one organism Life could start up again completely separate but it would be devoured by the life that already exists

Answer 191

Blends in with the lichen on trees “Typica” variation(lighter) flourished in england originally In the industrial revolution the “Carbonaria” variation flourished because they were darker and the trees were covered in soot(making them darker) When england cleaned up the “typica” moth made a comeback

Answer 192

People kept track of every finch on an island. The birds couldn't leave the island since it was so far away from other land. The finch beaks changed according to seasons(due to different foods)

Answer 193

People but bacteria on a mega plate with the edges having no antibiotics and more antibiotics as you go to the middle. They had a layer of agar bacteria could move in and one with the amounts of antibiotics(was split into 9 sections, 0, 1, 10, 100, 1k, 100, 10, 1, 0) number is the multiple of antibiotics. First the bacteria spread in the area up to the point where they can no longer survive Then mutants appeared that's resistant to the antibiotics and it goes through the area getting the food. They kept stopping and then evolving to get past each spot getting fast each time. By the process of accumulating successive mutations bacteria which are normally sensitive to an antibiotic can evolve resistance to extremely high concentrations in a short period of time

Answer 194

How evolution in human history has made us what we are today Explaining psychological traits we have as evolutionary adaptations Problem is some things can’t be explained this way. Bones are white but there's no evolutionary advantage. The thing they're made out of just happens to be white. However most things evolved for a reason Adaptationism: assumes that a feature of a species is there for an evolutionary reason. theorizing about evolutionary causes for phenotypes (an observable type of an organism, and it can refer to anything from a common trait, such as height or hair color, to presence or absence of a disease) Evolutionary psychology generated hypotheses but these must be tested Many people will believe and evolutionary theory without evidence It gets a bad reputation

Answer 195

Different ways that genes can affect you Predetermination Mostly independent of environment(ex. Eye color(can’t be affected by things you do)) Some traits are useless Male nipples Nipples formed is determined. They are only useful for females, but for males it only has a minor nutritive cost (isn't going away since it costs barely any energy) Vestigial organs(ex. appendix) Overridable Ex. bitter foods and drinks such as coffee Baldwin effect We evolved to learn something easily(ex. language) Cartical and neural recycling We like the taste of aspartame which has no nutritional value. Aspartame tricks us into thinking its sugar Cultural feedback loops Less hair leads to fewer pests. Clothes and fire allows it to happen

Answer 196

Things evolve for one purpose and get used for another Evolution can only change things that are already there Ear Bones came from lizard jaw bones Fins exapted into paws which exapted into hands

Answer 197

Juveniles look alot like adults The less something changes over its growth the more neotenous it is Butterflies are not neotenous. Caterpillars look completely different Small jaw Upright posture Big head Less developmental change Less aggression Sexual and natural selection More violent people get killed Because we live in groups it's not very advantageous to be violent We domesticated ourselves

Answer 198

The silver fox experiment A person chose foxes to breed that were more friendly and did not attack a glove when showed it. New foxes had new colors in pelts Foxes started barking and vocalizing Answering to names Ears became floppy Its theorized that melanin and the fight or flight response is connected so tame animals tend to be black and white. Created foxes that looked and behaved like dogs Genes can be genetically connected Things changing because other things change

Answer 199

Evolution predicts males are more attracted to healthy women who can bear children and women should be more attracted to men who provide resources to help offspring Men like a low waist to hip ratio(.7) which produces smarted children and healthier women (hourglass figure) In poor countries if you’re thin it probably means you're not getting enough food (e.g. playboy models over decades) What is considered beautiful from evolutionary advantage

Answer 200

Fat, salt, protein and sugar were important nutrients that were rare for most of evolutionary history. Now we have an abundance of these In the modern world things that taste good aren’t always healthy but in the past they were

Answer 201

Your genes are trying to propagate themselves Married people show modest correlations(.2) for Breadth of nose Length of earlobe Wrist measurements Distance between eyes Lung volume Middle finger correlates a whole .61 Similarity predicts marital success

Answer 202

What we know from our ancestor’s bodies comes from fossils but there are two problems with this. Behavior is not (directly) fossilized Thus we rely on scant artifacts, but even those appear relatively recently Fossils are very rare It is thought one bone in a billion gets fossilized That means that out of the population of canada(34 million) six of the human bones around today will be fossilized Bones not skeletons Fossils are also very hard to find since they’re buried underneath the ground

Answer 203

The oldest fossils of fully formed humans are only 50k-100k years old. That's only 2500-5000 generations spanning 20 years If language is instinct like chomsky says it is it would probably have to have been evolving for longer than humans have been around The group before humans(human-like but not humans) australopithecines had hands evolved for manipulation. We don’t know that they didn’t use tools Only stone and metal tools last but most modern hunter gatherer societies of today have more biodegradable tools than stone ones

Answer 204

1 ) People who came before us(includes those who didn’t reproduce) 2 ) The actual people who gave birth to the people living today (definition in a more biological sense)

Answer 205

We differentiated from something 100k to 200k years ago We differentiated from chimps much longer ago Apes and humans evolved from a common ancestors but humans did not evolve from apes Specialisation happens when a population grows and gets separated so they can’t inbreed anymore Things are considered the same species if they can mate and produce offspring and those offspring can mate and produce offspring We know our ancestors due to a mitochondrial eve which is the most distantly historical figure that is the ancestors of all humans. Mitochondria are weird, they have their own DNA. They were probably once a parasite In the mothers egg cell the mitochondria replicates itself. Fathers have no part We can follow mitochondrial DNA back to ancestors

Answer 206

Proof of evolution you can find on your own body If you put your thumb and pinky together then move your hand up a vane appears. Serves no purpose for humans but its left over due to an evolutionary past Goosebumps. Gives insulation to help things keep warm Tailbone. We have a small tailbone left over from our ancestors tails

Answer 207

The oldest human fossils are around 100k years old from africa Carbon dating Chemical analysis of carbon to determine how old the substance is. The more recent it is the more accurate it is. Most living things have no record at all. It is estimated that 1 in 10 species gets fossilized. Most creatures don’t die in sediment which means most aren’t pushed into the ground and turned into fossils 95% of fossils are from marine creatures in shallow parts of the water(sinks into the sediment)

Answer 208

People need to walk across large pieces of land looking for bones. It order to be turned into a fossil someone would have had to be rapidly buried and then have the earth bring them back to the surface.

Answer 209

Because we evolved to use vision as a primary sense it gave our brain a lot of machinery that then could be used for other things Relying on vision is important because it is inherently 3D unlike olfaction Olfactory animals, such as dogs, keep their heads close to the ground most of the time Olfaction is a “two dimensional flatland viewed from a one dimensional peephole” 3D thinking requires more brain power Birds have good vision and are smart but brains can’t get big because they have to fly

Answer 210

Human beings differ from other primates mostly in terms of their social environments We evolved smart brains to convey important information Keep track of everyone else and maintain social connections Results in a social cognition arms race(who can maintain the most social connections)

Answer 211

In general carnivores are more intelligent than herbivores. It takes more brains for a wolf to hunt a rabbit than for a rabbit to hunt a lettuce head. Mental map size Meat is nutritious. Relying on meat allowed brains to trust that nutrition will be in the environment allowing brains to grow bigger Big kills encourage socialization. Meat from a wild bull can feed 1000 people. Make a deal with your neighbors so they'll share with you when they get lucky

Answer 212

Walking upright allowed us to exapt our hands for different functions, which could make good use of more intelligence. Hands allow us to carry things which allow us create complex objects with parts from different geographical locations Requires imagination, planning, working memory These things work in a positive feedback loop(product of a reaction leads to an increase in that reaction)(aka they keep making each other get better) However there is no evidence of artifacts from the million and a half years of bipedality (there's twelve theories on why humans became bipedal) Upright posture put pressure on pelvis to be small(which lead to a bunch of deaths for child births but it was apparently worth it in the eyes of evolution) To maintain the intelligence arms race evolution discovered a different strategy of altriciousness Instead of being hardwired with things to survive children were given the ability to learn what to do This means more nurturing parents which increases socialisation Allows humans to live anywhere

Answer 213

Builds on what came before in a positive way Many cultures don’t know why their customs work Naskapi caribou hunters would heat shoulder bones in fire and then read them to see where to hunt next(basically fortune telling). This of course doesn’t actually work but it adds a level of randomness. Caribou would usually try to stay away from humans but they can’t predict the bs fortune telling randomizer In some cases like this its important people don’t understand or they may stop using it If you put a smart person in a new place they don’t survive. They only do it if they follow the native’s instructions People get stuff from their culture they don’t figure it out for themselves

Answer 214

Overimitation: when learning new skills chimps drop irrelevant factors, human children do not Chile peppers: people like them because they are antimicrobial but they are naturally adversive(so it would have had to come about because of cce) Prestige vs dominance: other animals only have dominance. People will imitate people they respect Killer whales and elephants are the only other animals that live long past reproductive ages. They also teach their young

Answer 215

They evolved to help us take care of the other people in our groups. But not so many people outside our groups.

Answer 216

In general evolved and well learned behaviors work faster than deliberate ones When you force people to play a prisoner’s dilemma game quickly, they are more likely to cooperate with the other prisoner Both prisoners have an options to cooperate with their other partner and not say anything to the police or to sell out their partner for a reduced sentence When its slower and they have more time to think they sell out their partner overriding their morality

Answer 217

Self interest: I care about myself and my family All animals have instincts for gene-preservation(with exceptions) Friendship: I care for historical cooperation partners Shared with chimps Sharing food used to be a life and death matter for us Tribalism: I care about us, but not them Tragedy of the commons individual users, acting independently according to their own self-interest, behave contrary to the common good of all users by depleting or spoiling the shared resource through their collective action Evolved morals in humans took care of this Anthropological survey shows that ethnocentrism is universal I care about all people or creatures that can have positive experiences The tragedy of common sense morality Requires abstract reasoning and values The circle expands over time

Answer 218

Greene’s experiment reveals that there are two competing systems for our moral considerations: The first is some kind of rational utilitarian calculus which makes switch cases permissible The second is an emotional reaction caused by a dislike of “getting our hands dirty” Utilitarianism vs deontology Flicking a switch is more distant than hurting someone with a knife We didn’t evolve to handle it since switches used to not exist Drone operators called deaths caused by them bug splats Hitmen vs doing it yourself

Answer 219

Our moral senses are defined on a line between two things Care / harm Helping and hurting Liberty / oppression Letting someone do something they want to do and oppressing them Authority / subversion Doing something someone tells you to do and undermining authority Fairness / cheating Loyalty / betrayal You bond with other people Sanctity / degradation Idea that the universe has a higher level and you should not violate that(tends to be in religion) Mnemonic: CLAFLS

Answer 220

People who disgust us we judge more harshly for purity related moral infractions Such as keeping your cubicle clean Vs not tipping a server Police are more likely to arrest obese people for purity related crimes, such as drugs, prostitution and lewdness

Answer 221

occurs when a person makes a moral judgment in a particular situation, admits to being unable to adequately defend that judgment or decision with reasons and arguments, but still remains obstinately and steadfastly committed to that initial judgment A man buys a ready-to-cook chicken, brings it home, has sexual intercourse with it and then eats it Did he do something morally wrong? Most people say yes but can’t really explain why

Answer 222

Right wing people tend to have all six moral foundations fairly strong Left wing people tend to only have care/harm and fairness/oppression strong Libertarians tend to have liberty / oppression strong This is mostly genetic which means your politics is mostly genetic

Answer 223

Pillars of morality: reciprocity(fairness) and empathy(compassion) Prosociality Empathy and condolence Fairness, reciprocity, friendship in chimps Chimos will kiss and embrace after a fight Capuchin monkey refused food if another monkey got better food(fairness)

Answer 224

Created by individuals or small teams(ex. Sci fi languages, conlangs

Answer 225

Using something as a base to compare something else to

Answer 226

Restaurants will put a very expensive item on the menu to make the others look reasonable What is a good life in ottawa? What about the congo? Comparing movie stars and saying one is ugly using other movie stars as an anchor when in reality they are usually all above average

Answer 227

the tendency to mentally upgrade or downgrade an object when comparing it to a contrasting object If men look at pictures of beautiful women they will rate their wife as being less attractive.

Answer 228

things will appear more different when viewed simultaneously If you are observing two things at the same time you will focus more on the differences when evaluating over-examine and over-value the differences between things. Ex eating a apple. Being given a choice between two apples and picking the fresher one and responding no when asked if you would have been content eating the other one when you would have been fine without a choice

Answer 229

Believing something is true because everyone else around you believes the same thing. This is why cults try to keep you from talking to other people outside the cult. They keep you in a perpetual bandwagon effect

Answer 230

believing what everyone else does to avoid social conflict Ex. someone being vegan because their boyfriend is

Answer 231

When you watch the news you tend to think they are hostile to your political views When showing people on both sides of the political spectrum the same news they both said it was going against them

Answer 232

People will demand more to give up an object than they were willing to pay to get it Once you own an object you find it more valuable Stores have generous return policies. (why dont you buy it you can always return it later). People end up not bringing it back People will pay more or put in more effort to avoid losing something than they would to gain an equivalent good

Answer 233

We value things in the future less than things now $100 now or how much a year from now? 400? That's more than interest Asking for favors Agreeing to stuff in the future Wow in 6 months im completely free. Six months passes and you wonder why you agreed to it. Think about if you want to do something in the next two days When people are in a chaotic environment(you don't know what the futures going to hold) the temporal discounting is increased

Answer 234

Thinking of yourself as having acted morally in the past can make you allow yourself to behave badly People will compensate to reach an equilibrium in many cases Also called self licensing or moral licensing People who wrote an essay against racism were less likely to give money to a panhandler afterwards

Answer 235

People will put themselves more at risk if they feel safer Seatbelts Drivers are safer but deaths are passed onto others Bike helmets People bike more dangerously when wearing one Dietary supplements make people eat more poorly and exercise less Football helmets cause more concussions because people play more rough. Ex. using head as a battering ram

Answer 236

You accept, seek out and remember things that support your views. You also interpret things in a way that support your views Seeing confirmation bias everywhere is also confirmation bias

Answer 237

People pay more attention to negative information Perhaps because it has been more important in our evolutionary history People remember dangerous things more Seeing dangerous things in more normal things You see a shadow and think its a person but it's actually a garbage bag

Answer 238

We think that doing harm is worse than not doing something that has an equal amount of harm People think killing someone is worse than letting them die

Answer 239

Judging a decision based on what ended up happening rather than on the information available at the decision making time Is it right to punish a drunk driver who kills someone more than a drunk driver who got lucky

Answer 240

We underestimate how long it will take us to complete tasks in the future Makes it easy for us to overbook ourselves Unexpected things happen. Since we don’t know what they will be we don’t expect them to happen

Answer 241

Believing something because you want it to be true Innocence of someone you care about

Answer 242

Assuming that things that are most easily brought to memory are more common or probable A problem with this is that emotional and vivid things are more easily brought to memory When the news shows you only murders you tend to think that murders are more common than they are People thought crime rate was going up when it was going down Don't understand what the world is like from the news

Answer 243

If presented with related base rate information (ex. general information on prevalence) and specific information (ex. information pertaining only to a specific case), people tend to ignore the base rate in favor of the individuating information, rather than correctly integrating the two If a test for a disease is 90% accurate and somebody gets a positive result what is the probability that they have the disease. Most people would think that its 90% but they are ignoring the % of people with the disease. There's far more false positives than people with the disease Ex. if the disease is in 2% of people and everyone gets tested

Answer 244

Tendency to judge the strength of arguments based on the plausibility of their conclusion rather than how strongly they support that conclusion You are biased to believe the answer is rational if you agree with the conclusion If rain is wet then my roof is wet My roof is wet Therefore rain is wet Rain is not wet due to the roof being wet. That's not a rational argument

Answer 245

What is more common, a person wearing birkenstocks or a hippie wearing birkenstocks. The hippie group has to be smaller since the other group includes it but people think its bigger The belief that the conjunction of two things together is more common that either one of them

Answer 246

When flipping a coin over and over if you get a bunch of heads in a row you think you're due for a tails. Ignores that each flip is independant. In reality all combinations are the same probability. Hot hand effect: believe that things will repeat(ex. Sports wins)

Answer 247

Pareidolia is the tendency for incorrect perception of a stimulus as an object, pattern or meaning known to the observer, such as seeing shapes in clouds, seeing faces in inanimate objects or abstract patterns, or hearing hidden messages in music The clustering illusion is the tendency to erroneously consider the inevitable "streaks" or "clusters" arising in small samples from random distributions to be non-random. Peoples ideas of random are too random illusory correlation is the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists

Answer 248

We remember the beginnings and endings of things better than the individual parts If there's 10 presentations you tend to remember the first one and the last one

Answer 249

tendency to believe that the world is just and that people get what they deserve If you think the world is ultimately a just place you will have a tendency to look at reasons to blame victims of inexplicable injuries

Answer 250

tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes The tendency to explain the behavior of others in terms of stable traits And to explain one's own actions in terms of reactions to the situation

Answer 251

Dreaming can occur in REM and non-REM(NREM) states 75% of our sleep is NREM NREM dreams tend to be dull, short and undreamlike REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movement, muscle atonia(not being able to move, temporary paralysis of your body) and often dreaming

Answer 252

Muscle atonia is caused by a part of the brain called the pors If you disable the pons in rats they engage in stalking like behavior during REM REM sleep disorder(physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep) Sleepwalking

Answer 253

People who have no dream imagery(visual anoneria) tend to also have a waking deficit in imaging memories(visual irreminiscence)

Answer 254

Ask people what their dreams tend to be like(worst) Ask people to keep a dream diary Ask people every morning to report their dreams Wake people during sleep at many points during the night and get reports(scientifically best way)

Answer 255

Scene shifts are common Tend to be narrative Tend to be experienced in “first-person” Dream emotion tend to match content Dreams can be bizzare but they are not often bizarre in terms of emotion matching content Scary dreams feel scary You don’t go on a murderous rampage in a happy dream They are always animated(not a slide show) Dreams are rarely bizarre , but when they are we often don’t notice it until we are awake Selection bias: bizarre dreams are easier to remember and are more often talked about

Answer 256

Films, visual images, recent social situations and pre-sleep behavior are rarely incorporated into dreams. Recent episodic memories, even salient(most noticeable or important) ones, are rarely incorporated into dreams

Answer 257

Things happening in the world can influence your dreams Dreaming you need to urinate due to your actual need to urinate Dreaming of teeth falling out due to dental irritation

Answer 258

Pre sleep attention to a specific concern This is called dream incubation

Answer 259

Threat simulation Theory Attempts to answer the question of why we dream Created by philosopher Antti Revonsuo A major function of dreams is to practice dealing with threats that were common in our ancestral environment Support for TST Animals dreams are highest in kids and decrease with age(so not cultural since cultural would increase with age) Negative emotions appear twice as often as positive ones The only kind of recurring dream with any frequency is being threatened by animals, people, monsters or natural disasters, and the response was watching, running or hiding. Westerners dream of things we rarely experience Ancestral threats are over represented People react appropriately to dream threats 94% of the time

Answer 260

Ancient survival behaviors are also over-represented in play and in phobias Animals play appropriately for what they need to do(squeaky toys)

Answer 261

The brain stem is very active, sending information forward The DLPFC(involved with executive function) is deactivated perhaps explaining our reduced reasoning during dreams, not noticing what’s weird, uninhibited behavior and our difficulty in remembering dreams

Answer 262

We typically forget dreams Correlates with visuospatial skill and individual differences in working memory Animals and infants cannot report dreams People assert that there was much more to their dream than they can report It's probably good we don’t remember dreams since it allows us to practice things without remembering the repercussions.

Answer 263

NREM sleep can be described as the stages of sleep that show greatly decreased brain activity. There are four different stages of NREM sleep. The brain shows dulled or limited senses of perception, though the thought process has been shown to be logical and perseverative. Episodic movements of the body occur during these stages, though they are involuntary movements. Dreams tend to be boring

Answer 264

Used to determine the different states of the brain over the course of the day and night Activation How busy your brain is Based level of brain activation Sometimes neurons fire more often(leading to higher activation) When you're awake or in REM sleep you have high activation Lower activation in NREM Information flow Whether the information you get is internal or external(External: things in the world, Internal: things in memory, from yourself) Sensory input vs internal fictive input Awake is high external while REM sleep is high internal Model of information processing Very complicated, don't need to know Aminergic-Cholinergic Neuromodulation

Answer 265

When you know you're dreaming and can control your actions and sometimes other dream content You can only control your eyes in the real world Could be a reactivation of the DLPFC, which allows you to see dream content for what it is, and control yourself Training yourself to lucid dream: dream diaries(recognizing what dreams are like), reality checks(looking back at things and seeing if they've changed), tech(tech tends to not work in dreams(ex. Car breaking down)) Evidence that supports these is bad though Lucid dreaming tends to make you exhausted

Answer 266

You feel awake You might feel chest pressure You can’t move It’s a carry over of muscle atonia from sleep to waking(not being able to move) You have hallucinations, often of the presence of a malevolent creature You feel abject terror Sleep paralysis is a universal constant but the nature of the creature changes based on the culture(one might see a demon while another culture sees aliens) When people start believing in a type of alien that alien starts showing up in sleep paralysis

Answer 267

We actually use all of our brains If any part of your brain gets damaged you will suffer deficits Evolution would not “waste” energy building vast parts of your brain you don’t use Brains use 20% of our body’s energy(2% of mass) Why do we believe it Availability cascade - once an idea gets repeated enough times people think its true Wishful thinking - people like to believe in the paranormal People want to make money off you - this product will raise your brain power What is true People can lose whole hemispheres and still function relatively normally(the brain has redundancies) If we removed 70% of your neurons randomly we don’t know how bad off you would be

Answer 268

Listening to mozart as a baby doesn’t make you smart We believe it because we hope it's true The effect is small, short term and only based on arousal You can get the same effect from hearing a scary passage from a stephen king book

Answer 269

Unfortunately they're not Recommended: Susan blackmores book, adventures of a parapsychologist She tried to prove it existed and now doesn’t believe it There are several cognitive biases that make us believe it is real Confirmation bias You don't notice things when it doesn't happen(all the times you call someone) but notice when it does happen(two people call at the same time) Neglect of negative results Only the studies that work get published even if its 1/20 of the time(random chance that it actually worked Wishful thinking

Answer 270

If they were biased they would underpredict later success for certain groups and overpredict for others. This does not happen Huge panels of scientists with widely varying viewpoints all concluded that they were not biased Item analysis is used to identify bad test questions

Answer 271

It is weakly correlated (0.09, close to 0) A conflict ridden home is much more likely to cause anxiety, depression, eating disorders, etc.

Answer 272

Moving goal posts, mysterians(want to have some secrets about subjects) “Almost implemented” Our economy would probably collapse without the findings of AI researchers

Answer 273

Confirmation bias The bankrupt gravity explanation A mosquito on you has more gravitational pull than the moon The fact that you're mostly water has nothing to do with it People don't think this is true for a new moon even though it has the same gravity You are more likely to notice aggressive behavior on a full moon

Answer 274

Money and happiness Money correlates with happiness until you're making around 105k$ a year(in our society), then it levels off Life events don't affect happiness that much Winners of lotteries and people who become paraplegic have happiness changes that only last a few months Things that do affect us: getting divorced, getting fired Much of your happiness(roughly 60%) is genetic (but still changeable) There are two kinds of happiness Pleasure, day to day Life satisfaction

Answer 275

synthetic happiness is what we make when we don't get what we wanted Being happy about the outcome you did not want Natural happiness is the happiness from getting the outcome we wanted

Answer 276

Generation of a theory A theory is an explanation that typically suggests the existence of theoretical entities that cannot be tested directly Theories make predictions about the world These predictions become “hypotheses” that can be tested with experiments and quasi-experiments Experiments have control over participants and conditions. They manipulate something Quasi-experiments are observations in the real world. Most political science lessons are learned from quasi-experiments

Answer 277

Hypotheses are falsifiable Falsifiable: describe a situation when the theory doesn’t apply If it isn’t falsifiable it can’t make good predictions Significant means probably not due to chance < 0.05 is the typical threshold or the “alpha level” This means 1/20 experiments will turn out finding significance just by chance We can’t look at a large group of numbers and know if they are different, that’s why we need statistics

Answer 278

Replicability(good experiments are thorough and clear enough that someone could run the study themselves to get results) Science’s self-correcting nature Publishing makes it public Other scientists will try to disprove your theory. This is good Science as a epistemology No other knowledge-generating enterprise(ex. religion) has a rigorous, self-correcting mechanism

Answer 279

We have subsystems for understanding different things in the world: contagion, persons, living things, tools, physical objects. These form “ontologies” We find things that belong to one category but have one(or close to one) thing from another fascinating A ghost or a god is a person with no body A zombie is a person with no mind A crying statue is an object with one biological property Studies show that people find these one-violation concepts the most plausible The more violations, the less plausible (this is why religions have gods, ghosts, statues, etc.)

Answer 280

Our belief that people still exist when we can no longer perceive them It seems that this does not shut off immediately when someone dies, leading to beliefs that their minds still exist Studies show that people, even self-described atheists, associate mental states with the dead Tends to last for 3 months after someone dies Learned or innate If something was learned we would predict it gets stronger during enculturation(over time) The opposite happens with associating mental states with the dead Kindergarteners were more likely to do this than older children This suggests that there is an innate component

Answer 281

The old brain is intuitive. We are aware of its outputs, not its processing. People's implicit reasoning about the supernatural can be at odds with what they say they believe

Answer 282

We are fascinated with corpses because they bring up intuitions from different systems that are contradictory. Religion comes in to fill the gaps Our contagion system makes us fear it Our theory of mind makes us think the person is still around, and we might feel love Our biological system tells us it is dead and cannot move As a result all religions have prescriptions of what to do with corpses Whereas things like gods have to be invented, corpses are universally compelling

Answer 283

According to anthropologist Pascal Boyer, these are common The body is buried and then some time later it is disinterred and something else is done Boyer says this is to make sense of our changing intuitions about the status of the dead person The first ritual is to remove the body, even though we believe the person still exists The second is to mark the change of our acceptance of the person being gone, and only existing in our memories

Answer 284

Explains why religion exists Imagine how a monkey’s reputation could be hurt in a pack. Without language, your reputation can only be hurt in the mind of those who directly see you With language, a reputation can spread and affect someone for years One theory says that humans evolved to have beliefs in supernatural agents(such as gods) to keep us behaving even when nobody’s watching This requires group selection which is very controversial The idea that a group of creatures will survive and continue instead of just one The group of people working together will outlive the one badass in the apocalypse

Answer 285

People are more prosocial when primed with supernatural concepts People think gods have “strategic” knowledge. Gossip is theorized to have a similar function and it also focuses on strategic knowledge Strategic knowledge: the gods only care about things that will keep society together It cares about lying to people, not how many pieces of pasta you ate today A book that describes this theory in detail is Jonathan Haidt’s book, The righteous mind

Answer 286

In traditional societies, schizotypals and epileptics are often perceived to be blessed and set the societies religious tone All of these correlate with religiosity Mania Obsessive-compulsive disorder (ODC) Schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder Temporal lobe epilepsy

Answer 287

Characterized by compulsive rituals: cleaning, entering and leaving spaces, hoarding and numbers(counting). Affects about 2% of people Hyperreligiosity is a major feature of OCD Orthodox religions are replete with food and body cleansing, repetition of mantras, numerology and portal rituals Failing to engage in the ritual causes a feeling of dread in OCD patients Participants of religious rituals and OCD patients alike do not know the mechanism that connects the ritual to future events People with OCD are attracted to religions, particularly ritualistic ones such as catholicism

Answer 288

People interpret reality abnormally Affects 3% of people Features hallucinations People who experience delusions tend to have more religious beliefs People with schizophrenia are treated as being blessed so hallucinations are accepted as divine truth Amped up pattern detection Sees patterns that aren't there (why is nobody sitting in this spot)

Answer 289

As with all things psychological, religiosity is about 50% genetic and 50% environmental More specifically 47% genetic 11% family upbringing 42% non family environment We create or call upon religious ideas when we encounter something out of the ordinary Unfortunately human beings constantly see patterns in truly random processes Termite collapse If termites eat someone's house people say if was because of something they did when it was really just random Karma the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect)

Answer 290

Awake- Not asleep Conscious of something- Awareness of an oncoming car, We are aware of much less than we think Consciousness of self- Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” , Awareness that you’re a living being Even if everything you’re looking at is an illusion something must be getting fooled Awareness of what is doing the action or having the experience Can be conscious of something and of self while dreaming

Answer 291

Creature consciousness Some creature or kinds of creatures have the ability to have mental state consciousness Mental state consciousness Whether a particular mental state / thought is conscious or not

Answer 292

As we get better at things we lose our consciousness of them. Ex. driving, tying shoes Making yourself conscious of them will mess up performance Perhaps babies are more conscious than us because they are habituated to nothing

Answer 293

Consciousness is not the main event Much of what the brain/mind does is not available to consciousness or does not require consciousness It is like an iceberg. Only a small part of the mind is able to reflect on or control AI has the ability to do all kinds of stuff without consciousness We just don't know enough about it to know Another possibility is the rest of the brain is conscious but not available to us

Answer 294

When we perceive, decide or believe something without having a notion about how the idea came about Can be caused by automatization We have genetic and learned intuitions We cannot tell the difference between genetic and learned intuitions If your intuition is about something your ancestors had to do it's probably right. Unknown if its not(ex. Buying insurance)

Answer 295

Some people believe it some don’t People knew when others would click a button before they made the conscious decision to do it

Answer 296

The qualities of consciousness. What it's like to see, hear, taste, etc. Example of a quale: what the experience of seeing red is like or what feeling pain is like There is a debate in philosophy whether qualia is reducible to physical processes and states

Answer 297

Blindsight: able to respond to visual stimuli that they do not consciously see Can’t see but they can technically “see” (don’t know where a cup is but they reach out to the right spot when going to grab it) The opposite of blindsight can also happen Hemisphere neglect(damage to the brain causing deficit of awareness of one side of space) Can’t see one hemisphere from eye, smaller vision range Note your vision doesn’t become black, it becomes nothing(what do you see after the range of your vision?) Severed corpus callosum(split brain) The parts of the brain are separate You can show them different images and ask to pick up other images relating to them and the left side of the brain will make up something of why they picked up something(but that explanation isn't actually why) Why the shovel: to clean out the chicken coop(in reality it was because of the snow covered cabin) Thought alienation Believing that the thoughts in your head are not your own

Answer 298

A book says what to respond with when given a chinese sentence. The guy appears to know chinese but he really doesn’t Conclusion: programming a digital computer may make it appear to understand language but could not produce real understanding This however could be complete garbage since the book would have to be giant(the size of the moon?)

Answer 299

In, philosophy, a zombie is a being that is like a human but has no conscious experience Behavioral Zombie: behaves just like a human Ex. chinese room Neurological zombie A behavioral zombie, the brain states of which are indistinguishable from a human If zombies are possible then perhaps some form of dualism is correct

Answer 300

the theory that the mental and the physical – or mind and body or mind and brain – are, in some sense, radically different kinds of thing The belief that there is some sort of mental substance that is not physical

Answer 301

consciousness consists in perceptions or thoughts about first-order mental states They claim that things are conscious when involved with abstract or high level thought. They have problems with Qualia

Answer 302

Consciousness highlights certain parts of memory that are viewable by other processes Similar to blackboard architecture in AI Bunch of parts of the brain doing something and a giant blackboard(the global workspace) parts of the brain can write on

Answer 303

There's a bunch of processes trying to understand things in different ways Its red shiny and not rotten I can pick it up, throw it It's not yours, if you take it it's stealing How hungry am I, do I want to eat it Parts of the brain looking through different lenses. They can compete for control over the parts of your mind There is no set point at which something becomes conscious

Answer 304

False memory is when people mistake suggestions by an interviewer(scientists, policemen or therapist, for example) as actual memories Lost in the mall scenario When telling a child about their past people would put in a random event like being lost in the mall and the child would believe it actually happened Bugs bunny at disney world scenario People believed they met bugs bunny at disney world even though he's not owned by disney There are lots of people in jail because of implanted memories of childhood abuse by well intentioned therapists

Answer 305

Artificial intelligence paradigm that reasons about what to do by retrieving similar cases from memory Paradigm: a typical example or pattern of something Lawyers need to find similar cases to the ones they’re working on These can be retrieved by using a case, keywords or principles as a query CBR has also been successful for help desks(stack overflow)

Answer 306

Some of the earlier AI programs were made to diagnose patients. They are expert systems(AIs intended to mimic the behavior of human experts) People have to make the AI wait a bit before giving the answer because people didn't think it was right(due to it responding too quickly) Used for: Diagnosis Medical information retrieval Image recognition and interpretation Many are not used because it doesn’t fit into the medical establishment. Most fun part of the doctors job is to diagnose

Answer 307

Usefulness How effective is the computer/software at what it's supposed to do Usability How easy is the software to use Learnability How easy is it to learn how to use the software

Answer 308

George lakoff has a popular theory that we think about abstract concepts as metaphors with more basic, usually bodily concepts His book describes conservatives using a “strict father” metaphor of government and liberals using a “nurturant parent” metaphor

Answer 309

Classical period: view that economics are allied with psychology Neoclassical period: view that humans were rational(homo economicus)(rational man assumption) Psychology and cognitive science influence shows the flaws in the homo economicus assumption People don't always do stuff in their best interest because they don't know what they’re going to habituate to.

Answer 310

Part of a tradition of game playing AIs Playing chess as an AI is really easy since it’s a limited environment “They make a lot of counterintuitive, even absurd looking moves that on closer inspection turn out to be outrageously creative” Helps generate new ideas for pro players Allows pro players to study the game more deeply An AI beat a chess master

Answer 311

Taught how to paint People ended up saying cool robot instead of actually paying attention to what it was doing The creator didn't actually publish it before he died so people can’t use his findings Robots are very limited right now since they either need to be plugged in or they need a ton of batteries (boston dynamics does some cool stuff) (also robot soccer)

Answer 312

Visual Analytics Using computer visualisation to help analysts understand data Visualising data that you don’t understand Virtual Reality When waking forward in the game people think they're waking in a straight line in real life. In reality though the camera is shifting slightly to make them walk in a circle

Answer 313

Music is found in all cultures Music generation requires training Involves many aspects of cognition, especially perception, creativity and emotion Music can be connected to anything in cog sci Connection between higher pitch when talking to babies + music(higher pitch) Higher pitch leads to better learning

Answer 314

Social bonding Emotion regulation Mother-infant interaction Healing(Helps regulate dopamine) Religion Aesthetic experiences(it's fun)

Answer 315

Two views: No its a spandrel Spandrel: something that came about but serves no evolutionary purpose Yes we evolved to have it

Answer 316

In terms of survival and reproduction music is useless Byproduct of other things Motor control Sensitivity to speech or calls: cries, laughs, sighs Auditory cheesecake The cheesecake isn’t necessary for survival but the parts are Supernormal stimulus Steven pinker's view

Answer 317

Ancient (found ivory pipes from 42000 BC) Cross cultural Triggers emotions Evidence against: Music does not predict mating success Looking at 10k twins, no effect of music on: Number of partners Age of first intercourse Number of offspring

Answer 318

Music is like a peacock's tail It is used to attract mates along with dancing It is a signal of intelligence, health, etc. Bird songs are used in courtship

Answer 319

Social bonding replaced grooming Used to form alliances Synchronized movement releases endorphins Listening releases opioids And serotonin and dopamine

Answer 320

Theorized by hagen and bryant Evolved from coordinated territorial defense signals Mated birds sing together to protect territory Coyotes howl at periphery Only in packs, never alone

Answer 321

All brains react the same way to a violation in syntax(measured through a cap on the scalp). The way it reacts is called a P600 P600 is also found for chord violations Suggests that P600 is not language specific

Answer 322

Why are pitches considered to be high or low? Frequencies / wavelengths Why is upward motion associated with goodness? Sounds beautiful Extract it from our daily life. Being in the clouds In other languages(when asked to describe the pitches where we say high and low) Kpelle: light and heavy Suya: young and old Bashi: weak and strong Manza: small and large Farsi: thin and thick

Answer 323

Music can completely change the tone of something Low notes and minor key: Imperial march Corrupt government, suspense, a little scary Imperial march in major key Happy Sad music: Lower pitches Dissonance Slow tempo Minor key Sad speech is also in the minor key

Answer 324

A cellist lost memory following encephalitis Lost memory in many things but not of music

Answer 325

After a bunch of repetitions the speech sounds like music As you listen to something multiple times you fully understand the meaning and no longer pay attention to it You then notice other parts of it(like the beat) You pay attention to details of language you would not otherwise pay attention to

Answer 326

People can hear lyrics in a giant cluster of notes Your brain is only able to recognize the vocals once you know what the vocals and lyrics are If you don’t know the song you won’t hear the lyrics until you listen to it once normally You can also hear sin waves as speech

Answer 327

Same footage, different music Changes the entire meaning Ex. star wars with love music

Answer 328

Draw our attention Hold our attention(movie) Make us desire to repeat the experience(music) Make us have positive associations with the experience(it doesn't have to be positive though) We feel they are important(news) We have a desire to understand them If they are facts or explanations we are more likely to believe them for non-rational reasons

Answer 329

A great deal of what we find compelling can be explained with the following We are interested in social status and our place in it We are compelled to believe things we particularly hope or fear are true We are attracted to patterns We are drawn to achieve goals, solve puzzles and resolve contradictions Our biological natures and psychological biases introduce a host of constraints on what we find compelling

Answer 330

Arts and compelling natural configurations Static arts(ex. Sculptures and painting) narrative arts(ex. Novels, films and storytelling) Music Dance Sunsets attractive people etc. Theories Astrology Conspiracy theories Urban legends Religions Alien abductions Postmodernism Sports and games Football Role playing games Tetris Cheerleading Riddles Quotes Jokes News

Answer 331

It helped our ancestors An understanding of the social atmosphere gives someone a competitive advantage We find anything dealing with people and social relationships compelling Drama in narrative Making and losing allies and friends Sexual relationships Favors Secrets Competing agendas Our mind treats things in fiction the same was as in real life

Answer 332

All stories have characters and conflict We even tries to explain science this way(describes water as a character with a goal when going down a mountain) Our stories even make inanimate objects into people

Answer 333

Secrets What makes gossip juicy Losing status is juicier than gaining status People changing in the social hierarchy If a teacher gains status then the hierarchy won’t change and its not juicy. If he loses status he gets closer to the students and it becomes juicy With university and high school students the story of the high school student doing well gets repeated since they get closer to the university students

Answer 334

“Stories” Tend to be about people or things affecting people

Answer 335

We have an overactive social explanation detector Conspiracy theories are always about people and their secrets All the aspects of a juicy story: Always malevolent beings Inside information Revealed the truth

Answer 336

People in conflict ingroup/outgroup People will favor their ingroup because it feels like they are representing you Animals play fight to resolve conflicts and attract mates

Answer 337

“Greys” are humanoid, secretive and their abduction stories often involve sex and violence Note that the most bad science(pseudoscience) involves people, at least indirectly Aliens, astrology, crystal healing, etc. Religions overwhelmingly personify gods and spirits with desires, personalities and beliefs(to be like people. People where there are no people) Minds constantly see things in terms of people

Answer 338

Fear Negativity bias: attend and believe negative information We are more likely to believe dangerous generalisations Hope We are happy when we believe something beneficial Confirmation bias, wishful thinking There are at least 15 “positive illusions” We especially want to feel good about ourselves Illusory superiority, positive outcome or valence effect, optimism bias, planning bias, choice supportive bias, etc. Aren’t I trying to explain everything? The anti sweet spot. A lot of fear or a lot of hope work but in the middle is dull or dead

Answer 339

Landscapes Looking from high up feels good since it helped our ancestors Animals, water, high up The people who liked them survived so now we like them Horrific images, rubberneckers Beautiful people People who are beautiful tend to have healthier kids When looking at ink your mind cannot help but see that ink as a person We feel it's important = we feel we're going to learn something Fail videos we look at so we don’t make the same mistake in the future

Answer 340

Urban legends More likely to be spread if cautionary tales Bad science We are incredibly easy to scare(ex. Vaccines causing disease) We are suckers for hope(quark remedies) It's easier to start believing than to stop believing Anti vaxxers Religion Hope for an afterlife Threats of divine punishment Cognitive dissonance and proselytizing Proselytizing: the action of attempting to convert someone from one religion, belief, or opinion to another Gives you a sense of stress then provides a method for relieving that stress When religions are proven wrong then they try to recruit more people When your point of view is threatened you get people around you to believe it to fight back Conspiracy theories are frightening Hidden agendas make it especially pernicious Pernicious: having a harmful effect, especially in a gradual or subtle way Any disconfirming evidence is taken to be further evidence of a cover up See counter evidence as supporting the theory which makes stopping them difficult Confirmation bias: believe things that support and ignore things that don’t

Answer 341

We are intrinsically rewarded for finding regularity in our world Seeing how the world works helps survival Textures, tempo, prediction, order We are hyper sensitive pattern detectors. We have a ton of biases due to this We will see a repetition as a greater pattern when it’s not Clustering illusion, pareidolia, illusory correlation Left right symmetry because it indicates the presence of living things in the natural world

Answer 342

Things that are easy to understand require less processing. Such things are perceived as more clear, pleasant, loud, longer, recent, less risky, attractive and truthful Exposure effect people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them False fame effect participants falsely identify previously studied (old) non famous names as famous. Apparently, participants are misled by the familiar sound of old non famous names Just changing a font color to something easier to read makes it more believable

Answer 343

Matching colors Complexity Things that are a little complex are more compelling. There is a sweet spot Too complex has no meaning(tv static) Too simple is boring(white canvas)

Answer 344

Repetitions of a pattern you saw at higher levels in lower levers

Answer 345

Reincorporation of symbols(symbolism) Haiku that are more familiar and easy to understand are more liked Titles of books have gotten shorter

Answer 346

We like rhyme “If it bleeds it leads” “Why can’t we all just get along” This is the version of the quote that gets repeated while the actual full quote is a giant paragraph More believable because its more concise

Answer 347

Availability cascade once an idea gets repeated enough times people think its true Alien abduction, religious beliefs Music Hearing a song again and again makes you like it Same instruments in a piece Musical motifs Verses and choruses Familiarity with genres

Answer 348

We are altricious not precocious We are born knowing very little and have to learn over time(in contrast to birds) Thin cortex predicts intelligence Knowing less in the beginning They better remember the world around them Looking paradigm is based on the compellingness of congruity and puzzles infants looked at patterned images longer than uniform images Related to dopamine release Patterns -> opioids Incongruities -> dopamine(interest)

Answer 349

Too much pattern bores us because we understand it too well Too much incongruity bores us because we think it's incomprehensible The sweet spot is tantalizing, hinting at hidden patterns we can find Education Even science fiction and fantasy can’t get too weird. Most of the stories take place in areas very similar to earth

Answer 350

Putting walls in a room makes people enter the room because they don’t know what's behind the wall When you can’t see around the corner you’re more drawn in Parks, streets Monument valley(game)

Answer 351

If you increase the intensity of a stimuli the organism will have an increased response Ballet is an exaggeration of graceful movement

Answer 352

Mysteries eventually reveal(gives pleasure), absurdism and magic shows do not Star wars vs oz Star was is potentially explicable Oz is inexplicable wonderfulness Hellraiser is inexplicable awfulness

Answer 353

We don’t want a game that's predictable.We prefer closer scores Benign violation We find something funny when it appears to violate our understanding but it turns out it’s okay(nothing scary or hurtful) We love quotations with apparent contradictions Less is more Art is the lie that reveals the truth

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