Radiology Of The MSK System Flashcards
(3055 cards)
1
Q
Plain radiography / X-ray
How it works
A
A radiograph is a projectional image generated by passage of X-rays through an object. (In a medical radiograph, the object is the patient).
The image is generated on a detector plate called an X-ray detector.
The detector plate is like a photographic film, when X-rays hit the plate, it turns black. The amount of blackness depends on the number of X-rays penetrating the object and hitting the plate.
X-rays only travel in a straight line. No deflection by bones or metalwork. X-rays are absorbed by dense materials (containing a lot of electrons) e.g. bones, metals. They do not hit the plate, which appears white.
2
Q
X- ray
Advantages and disadvantages
A
Advantages:
• X-rays are quick
• X-rays are readily available and inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Involve radiation
• Poor soft tissue contrast resolution
3
Q
Fractures
A
A fracture is a complete or incomplete break in the continuity of a bone. In a fracture, the cortex will appear discontinuous on the X-ray
In a transverse fracture, the ‘break’ crosses the bone at a right angle to the long axis of the bone
In a linear (or sagittal plane) fracture, the fracture line passes in parallel to the long axis of the bone.
In an oblique fracture, the fracture line is at an oblique angle to the long axis of the bone. However, the fracture is still confined to one plane.
A spiral fracture is easily confused with an oblique fracture on an X-ray but in a spiral fracture, the fracture line spirals round in multiple planes.
Compression fractures occur in cancellous bone when an axial load compresses the bone beyond its limit. They most commonly occur in the lumbar vertebrae. It can be difficult to see the fracture line in a compression fracture
Greenstick fractures are incomplete fractures in which the bone bends and cracks instead of breaking into separate pieces. The cortex on just one side of the bone fractures. Most greenstick fractures occur in children younger than 10 years of age because their bones are softer and more flexible than are the bones of adults
Epiphyseal separation fractures occur when the fracture line extends through an unfused growth plate, thereby separating the epiphysis from the metaphysis. An example is a slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE; also known as slipped upper
4
Q
Radiographic changes seen during childhood
A
At birth, long bones contain separate ossification centres in the epiphyses and the diaphysis (shaft).
The ossification centre in the diaphysis is referred to as the primary ossification centre, and the ossification centres in the epiphyses are secondary ossification centres.
These ossification centres are separated by growing zones called growth plates (epiphyseal plates)
As these are less mineralised than the surrounding bone, they are less radio-opaque and can be easily seen on X-ray images as dark lines.
As the child grows, the growth plates become thinner, eventually disappearing and becoming ‘closed’. Many factors influence the proliferation and transformation of cells within the growth plate of long bones. For example, growth hormone promotes cellular proliferation, whereas a deficiency of thyroid hormone or excess corticosteroids both result in a reduction in cell division in the proliferation zone, leading to growth retardation.
The carpal bones (small bones in the wrist) are not ossified at birth and ossify gradually from birth to 12 years of age
A bone age (or skeletal age) study helps estimate the maturity of the child’s musculoskeletal system by looking at the degree of ossification of the carpal bones and the maturation of the growth plates of long bones.
5
Q
Different phases of fracture healing
A
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
6
Q
CT scan, what is it?
A
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
7
Q
CT scans - Adv
A
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
8
Q
CT scans - Dis
A
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
9
Q
Interpreting CT scans
A
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
10
Q
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
A
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
11
Q
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
A
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
12
Q
MRI - Adv vs Dis
A
Advantages
13
Q
Ultrasound
A
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
14
Q
Different phases of fracture healing
A
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
15
Q
CT scan, what is it?
A
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
16
Q
CT scans - Adv
A
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
17
Q
CT scans - Dis
A
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
18
Q
Interpreting CT scans
A
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
19
Q
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
A
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
20
Q
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
A
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
21
Q
MRI - Adv vs Dis
A
Advantages
22
Q
Ultrasound
A
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
23
Q
Different phases of fracture healing
A
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
24
Q
CT scan, what is it?
A
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
25
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
26
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
27
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
28
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
29
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
30
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
31
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
32
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
33
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
34
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
35
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
36
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
37
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
38
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
39
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
40
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
41
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
42
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
43
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
44
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
45
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
46
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
47
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
48
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
49
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
50
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
51
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
52
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
53
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
54
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
55
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
56
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
57
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
58
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
59
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
60
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
61
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
62
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
63
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
64
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
65
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
66
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
67
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
68
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
69
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
70
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
71
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
72
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
73
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
74
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
75
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
76
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
77
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
78
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
79
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
80
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
81
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
82
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
83
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
84
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
85
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
86
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
87
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
88
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
89
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
90
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
91
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
92
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
93
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
94
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
95
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
96
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
97
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
98
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
99
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
100
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
101
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
102
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
103
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
104
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
105
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
106
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
107
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
108
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
109
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
110
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
111
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
112
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
113
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
114
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
115
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
116
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
117
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
118
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
119
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
120
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
121
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
122
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
123
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
124
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
125
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
126
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
127
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
128
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
129
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
130
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
131
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
132
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
133
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
134
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
135
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
136
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
137
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
138
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
139
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
140
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
141
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
142
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
143
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
144
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
145
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
146
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
147
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
148
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
149
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
150
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
151
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
152
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
153
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
154
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
155
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
156
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
157
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
158
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
159
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
160
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
161
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
162
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
163
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
164
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
165
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
166
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
167
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
168
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
169
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
170
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
171
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
172
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
173
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
174
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
175
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
176
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
177
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
178
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
179
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
180
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
181
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
182
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
183
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
184
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
185
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
186
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
187
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
188
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
189
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
190
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
191
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
192
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
193
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
194
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
195
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
196
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
197
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
198
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
199
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
200
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
201
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
202
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
203
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
204
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
205
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
206
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
207
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
208
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
209
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
210
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
211
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
212
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
213
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
214
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
215
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
216
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
217
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
218
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
219
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
220
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
221
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
222
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
223
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
224
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
225
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
226
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
227
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
228
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
229
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
230
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
231
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
232
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
233
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
234
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
235
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
236
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
237
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
238
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
239
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
240
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
241
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
242
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
243
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
244
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
245
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
246
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
247
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
248
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
249
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
250
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
251
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
252
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
253
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
254
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
255
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
256
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
257
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
258
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
259
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
260
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
261
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
262
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
263
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
264
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
265
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
266
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
267
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
268
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
269
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
270
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
271
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
272
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
273
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
274
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
275
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
276
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
277
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
278
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
279
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
280
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
281
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
282
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
283
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
284
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
285
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
286
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
287
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
288
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
289
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
290
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
291
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
292
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
293
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
294
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
295
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
296
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
297
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
298
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
299
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
300
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
301
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
302
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
303
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
304
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
305
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
306
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
307
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
308
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
309
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
310
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
311
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
312
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
313
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
314
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
315
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
316
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
317
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
318
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
319
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
320
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
321
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
322
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
323
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
324
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
325
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
326
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
327
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
328
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
329
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
330
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
331
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
332
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
333
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
334
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
335
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
336
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
337
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
338
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
339
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
340
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
341
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
342
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
343
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
344
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
345
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
346
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
347
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
348
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
349
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
350
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
351
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
352
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
353
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
354
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
355
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
356
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
357
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
358
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
359
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
360
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
361
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
362
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
363
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
364
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
365
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
366
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
367
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
368
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
369
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
370
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
371
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
372
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
373
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
374
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
375
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
376
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
377
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
378
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
379
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
380
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
381
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
382
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
383
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
384
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
385
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
386
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
387
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
388
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
389
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
390
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
391
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
392
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
393
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
394
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
395
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
396
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
397
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
398
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
399
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
400
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
401
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
402
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
403
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
404
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
405
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
406
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
407
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
408
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
409
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
410
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
411
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
412
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
413
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
414
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
415
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
416
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
417
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
418
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
419
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
420
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
421
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
422
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
423
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
424
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
425
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
426
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
427
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
428
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
429
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
430
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
431
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
432
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
433
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
434
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
435
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
436
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
437
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
438
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
439
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
440
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
441
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
442
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
443
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
444
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
445
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
446
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
447
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
448
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
449
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
450
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
451
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
452
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
453
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
454
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
455
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
456
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
457
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
458
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
459
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
460
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
461
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
462
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
463
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
464
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
465
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
466
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
467
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
468
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
469
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
470
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
471
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
472
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
473
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
474
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
475
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
476
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
477
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
478
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
479
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
480
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
481
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
482
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
483
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
484
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
485
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
486
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
487
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
488
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
489
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
490
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
491
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
492
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
493
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
494
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
495
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
496
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
497
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
498
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
499
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
500
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
501
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
502
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
503
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
504
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
505
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
506
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
507
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
508
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
509
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
510
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
511
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
512
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
513
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
514
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
515
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
516
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
517
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
518
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
519
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
520
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
521
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
522
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
523
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
524
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
525
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
526
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
527
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
528
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
529
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
530
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
531
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
532
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
533
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
534
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
535
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
536
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
537
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
538
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
539
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
540
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
541
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
542
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
543
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
544
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
545
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
546
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
547
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
548
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
549
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
550
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
551
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
552
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
553
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
554
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
555
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
556
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
557
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
558
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
559
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
560
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
561
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
562
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
563
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
564
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
565
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
566
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
567
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
568
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
569
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
570
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
571
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
572
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
573
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
574
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
575
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
576
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
577
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
578
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
579
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
580
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
581
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
582
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
583
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
584
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
585
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
586
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
587
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
588
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
589
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
590
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
591
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
592
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
593
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
594
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
595
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
596
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
597
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
598
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
599
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
600
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
601
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
602
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
603
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
604
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
605
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
606
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
607
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
608
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
609
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
610
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
611
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
612
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
613
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
614
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
615
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
616
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
617
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
618
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
619
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
620
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
621
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
622
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
623
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
624
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
625
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
626
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
627
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
628
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
629
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
630
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
631
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
632
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
633
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
634
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
635
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
636
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
637
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
638
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
639
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
640
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
641
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
642
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
643
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
644
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
645
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
646
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
647
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
648
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
649
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
650
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
651
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
652
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
653
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
654
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
655
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
656
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
657
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
658
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
659
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
660
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
661
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
662
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
663
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
664
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
665
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
666
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
667
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
668
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
669
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
670
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
671
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
672
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
673
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
674
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
675
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
676
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
677
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
678
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
679
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
680
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
681
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
682
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
683
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
684
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
685
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
686
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
687
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
688
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
689
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
690
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
691
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
692
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
693
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
694
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
695
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
696
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
697
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
698
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
699
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
700
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
701
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
702
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
703
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
704
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
705
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
706
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
707
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
708
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
709
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
710
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
711
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
712
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
713
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
714
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
715
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
716
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
717
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
718
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
719
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
720
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
721
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
722
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
723
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
724
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
725
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
726
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
727
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
728
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
729
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
730
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
731
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
732
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
733
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
734
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
735
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
736
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
737
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
738
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
739
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
740
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
741
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
742
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
743
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
744
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
745
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
746
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
747
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
748
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
749
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
750
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
751
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
752
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
753
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
754
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
755
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
756
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
757
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
758
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
759
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
760
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
761
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
762
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
763
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
764
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
765
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
766
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
767
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
768
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
769
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
770
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
771
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
772
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
773
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
774
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
775
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
776
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
777
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
778
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
779
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
780
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
781
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
782
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
783
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
784
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
785
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
786
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
787
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
788
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
789
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
790
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
791
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
792
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
793
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
794
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
795
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
796
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
797
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
798
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
799
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
800
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
801
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
802
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
803
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
804
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
805
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
806
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
807
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
808
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
809
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
810
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
811
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
812
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
813
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
814
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
815
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
816
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
817
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
818
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
819
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
820
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
821
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
822
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
823
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
824
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
825
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
826
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
827
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
828
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
829
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
830
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
831
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
832
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
833
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
834
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
835
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
836
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
837
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
838
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
839
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
840
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
841
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
842
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
843
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
844
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
845
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
846
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
847
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
848
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
849
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
850
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
851
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
852
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
853
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
854
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
855
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
856
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
857
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
858
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
859
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
860
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
861
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
862
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
863
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
864
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
865
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
866
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
867
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
868
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
869
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
870
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
871
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
872
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
873
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
874
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
875
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
876
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
877
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
878
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
879
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
880
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
881
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
882
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
883
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
884
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
885
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
886
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
887
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
888
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
889
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
890
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
891
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
892
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
893
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
894
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
895
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
896
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
897
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
898
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
899
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
900
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
901
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
902
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
903
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
904
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
905
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
906
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
907
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
908
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
909
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
910
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
911
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
912
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
913
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
914
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
915
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
916
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
917
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
918
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
919
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
920
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
921
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
922
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
923
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
924
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
925
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
926
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
927
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
928
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
929
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
930
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
931
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
932
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
933
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
934
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
935
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
936
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
937
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
938
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
939
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
940
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
941
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
942
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
943
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
944
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
945
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
946
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
947
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
948
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
949
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
950
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
951
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
952
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
953
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
954
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
955
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
956
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
957
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
958
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
959
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
960
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
961
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
962
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
963
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
964
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
965
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
966
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
967
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
968
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
969
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
970
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
971
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
972
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
973
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
974
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
975
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
976
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
977
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
978
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
979
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
980
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
981
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
982
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
983
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
984
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
985
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
986
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
987
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
988
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
989
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
990
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
991
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
992
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
993
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
994
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
995
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
996
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
997
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
998
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
999
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1000
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1001
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1002
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1003
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1004
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1005
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1006
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1007
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1008
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1009
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1010
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1011
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1012
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1013
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1014
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1015
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1016
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1017
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1018
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1019
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1020
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1021
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1022
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1023
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1024
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1025
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1026
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1027
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1028
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1029
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1030
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1031
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1032
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1033
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1034
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1035
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1036
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1037
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1038
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1039
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1040
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1041
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1042
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1043
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1044
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1045
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1046
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1047
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1048
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1049
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1050
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1051
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1052
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1053
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1054
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1055
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1056
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1057
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1058
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1059
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1060
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1061
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1062
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1063
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1064
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1065
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1066
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1067
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1068
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1069
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1070
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1071
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1072
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1073
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1074
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1075
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1076
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1077
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1078
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1079
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1080
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1081
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1082
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1083
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1084
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1085
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1086
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1087
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1088
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1089
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1090
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1091
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1092
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1093
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1094
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1095
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1096
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1097
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1098
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1099
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1100
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1101
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1102
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1103
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1104
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1105
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1106
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1107
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1108
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1109
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1110
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1111
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1112
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1113
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1114
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1115
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1116
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1117
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1118
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1119
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1120
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1121
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1122
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1123
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1124
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1125
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1126
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1127
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1128
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1129
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1130
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1131
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1132
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1133
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1134
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1135
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1136
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1137
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1138
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1139
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1140
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1141
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1142
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1143
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1144
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1145
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1146
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1147
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1148
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1149
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1150
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1151
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1152
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1153
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1154
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1155
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1156
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1157
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1158
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1159
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1160
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1161
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1162
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1163
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1164
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1165
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1166
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1167
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1168
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1169
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1170
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1171
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1172
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1173
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1174
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1175
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1176
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1177
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1178
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1179
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1180
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1181
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1182
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1183
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1184
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1185
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1186
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1187
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1188
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1189
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1190
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1191
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1192
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1193
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1194
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1195
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1196
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1197
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1198
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1199
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1200
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1201
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1202
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1203
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1204
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1205
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1206
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1207
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1208
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1209
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1210
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1211
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1212
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1213
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1214
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1215
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1216
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1217
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1218
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1219
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1220
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1221
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1222
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1223
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1224
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1225
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1226
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1227
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1228
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1229
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1230
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1231
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1232
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1233
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1234
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1235
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1236
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1237
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1238
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1239
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1240
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1241
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1242
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1243
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1244
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1245
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1246
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1247
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1248
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1249
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1250
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1251
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1252
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1253
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1254
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1255
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1256
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1257
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1258
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1259
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1260
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1261
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1262
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1263
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1264
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1265
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1266
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1267
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1268
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1269
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1270
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1271
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1272
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1273
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1274
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1275
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1276
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1277
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1278
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1279
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1280
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1281
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1282
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1283
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1284
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1285
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1286
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1287
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1288
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1289
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1290
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1291
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1292
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1293
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1294
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1295
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1296
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1297
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1298
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1299
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1300
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1301
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1302
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1303
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1304
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1305
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1306
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1307
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1308
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1309
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1310
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1311
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1312
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1313
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1314
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1315
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1316
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1317
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1318
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1319
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1320
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1321
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1322
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1323
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1324
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1325
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1326
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1327
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1328
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1329
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1330
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1331
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1332
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1333
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1334
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1335
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1336
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1337
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1338
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1339
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1340
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1341
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1342
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1343
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1344
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1345
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1346
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1347
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1348
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1349
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1350
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1351
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1352
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1353
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1354
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1355
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1356
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1357
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1358
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1359
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1360
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1361
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1362
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1363
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1364
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1365
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1366
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1367
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1368
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1369
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1370
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1371
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1372
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1373
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1374
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1375
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1376
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1377
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1378
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1379
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1380
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1381
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1382
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1383
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1384
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1385
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1386
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1387
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1388
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1389
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1390
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1391
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1392
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1393
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1394
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1395
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1396
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1397
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1398
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1399
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1400
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1401
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1402
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1403
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1404
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1405
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1406
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1407
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1408
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1409
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1410
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1411
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1412
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1413
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1414
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1415
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1416
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1417
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1418
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1419
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1420
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1421
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1422
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1423
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1424
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1425
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1426
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1427
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1428
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1429
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1430
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1431
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1432
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1433
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1434
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1435
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1436
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1437
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1438
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1439
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1440
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1441
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1442
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1443
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1444
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1445
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1446
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1447
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1448
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1449
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1450
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1451
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1452
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1453
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1454
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1455
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1456
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1457
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1458
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1459
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1460
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1461
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1462
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1463
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1464
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1465
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1466
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1467
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1468
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1469
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1470
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1471
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1472
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1473
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1474
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1475
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1476
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1477
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1478
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1479
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1480
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1481
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1482
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1483
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1484
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1485
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1486
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1487
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1488
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1489
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1490
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1491
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1492
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1493
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1494
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1495
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1496
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1497
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1498
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1499
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1500
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1501
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1502
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1503
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1504
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1505
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1506
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1507
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1508
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1509
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1510
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1511
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1512
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1513
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1514
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1515
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1516
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1517
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1518
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1519
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1520
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1521
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1522
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1523
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1524
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1525
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1526
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1527
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1528
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1529
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1530
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1531
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1532
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1533
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1534
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1535
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1536
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1537
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1538
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1539
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1540
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1541
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1542
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1543
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1544
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1545
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1546
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1547
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1548
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1549
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1550
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1551
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1552
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1553
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1554
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1555
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1556
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1557
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1558
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1559
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1560
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1561
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1562
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1563
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1564
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1565
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1566
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1567
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1568
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1569
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1570
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1571
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1572
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1573
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1574
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1575
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1576
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1577
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1578
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1579
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1580
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1581
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1582
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1583
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1584
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1585
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1586
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1587
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1588
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1589
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1590
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1591
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1592
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1593
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1594
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1595
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1596
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1597
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1598
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1599
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1600
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1601
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1602
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1603
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1604
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1605
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1606
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1607
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1608
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1609
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1610
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1611
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1612
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1613
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1614
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1615
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1616
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1617
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1618
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1619
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1620
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1621
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1622
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1623
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1624
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1625
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1626
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1627
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1628
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1629
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1630
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1631
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1632
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1633
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1634
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1635
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1636
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1637
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1638
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1639
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1640
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1641
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1642
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1643
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1644
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1645
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1646
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1647
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1648
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1649
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1650
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1651
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1652
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1653
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1654
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1655
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1656
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1657
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1658
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1659
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1660
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1661
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1662
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1663
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1664
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1665
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1666
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1667
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1668
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1669
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1670
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1671
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1672
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1673
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1674
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1675
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1676
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1677
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1678
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1679
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1680
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1681
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1682
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1683
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1684
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1685
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1686
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1687
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1688
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1689
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1690
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1691
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1692
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1693
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1694
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1695
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1696
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1697
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1698
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1699
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1700
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1701
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1702
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1703
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1704
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1705
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1706
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1707
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1708
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1709
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1710
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1711
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1712
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1713
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1714
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1715
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1716
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1717
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1718
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1719
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1720
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1721
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1722
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1723
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1724
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1725
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1726
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1727
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1728
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1729
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1730
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1731
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1732
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1733
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1734
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1735
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1736
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1737
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1738
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1739
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1740
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1741
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1742
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1743
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1744
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1745
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1746
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1747
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1748
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1749
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1750
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1751
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1752
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1753
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1754
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1755
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1756
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1757
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1758
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1759
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1760
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1761
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1762
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1763
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1764
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1765
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1766
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1767
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1768
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1769
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1770
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1771
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1772
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1773
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1774
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1775
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1776
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1777
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1778
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1779
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1780
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1781
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1782
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1783
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1784
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1785
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1786
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1787
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1788
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1789
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1790
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1791
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1792
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1793
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1794
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1795
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1796
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1797
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1798
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1799
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1800
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1801
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1802
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1803
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1804
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1805
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1806
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1807
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1808
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1809
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1810
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1811
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1812
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1813
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1814
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1815
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1816
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1817
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1818
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1819
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1820
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1821
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1822
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1823
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1824
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1825
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1826
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1827
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1828
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1829
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1830
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1831
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1832
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1833
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1834
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1835
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1836
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1837
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1838
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1839
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1840
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1841
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1842
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1843
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1844
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1845
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1846
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1847
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1848
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1849
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1850
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1851
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1852
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1853
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1854
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1855
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1856
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1857
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1858
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1859
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1860
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1861
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1862
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1863
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1864
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1865
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1866
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1867
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1868
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1869
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1870
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1871
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1872
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1873
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1874
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1875
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1876
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1877
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1878
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1879
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1880
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1881
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1882
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1883
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1884
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1885
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1886
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1887
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1888
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1889
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1890
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1891
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1892
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1893
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1894
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1895
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1896
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1897
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1898
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1899
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1900
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1901
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1902
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1903
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1904
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1905
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1906
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1907
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1908
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1909
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1910
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1911
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1912
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1913
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1914
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1915
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1916
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1917
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1918
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1919
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1920
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1921
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1922
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1923
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1924
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1925
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1926
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1927
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1928
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1929
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1930
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1931
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1932
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1933
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1934
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1935
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1936
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1937
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1938
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1939
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1940
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1941
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1942
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1943
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1944
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1945
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1946
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1947
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1948
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1949
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1950
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1951
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1952
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1953
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1954
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1955
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1956
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1957
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1958
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1959
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1960
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1961
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1962
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1963
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1964
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1965
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1966
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1967
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1968
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1969
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1970
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1971
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1972
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1973
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1974
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1975
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1976
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1977
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1978
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1979
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1980
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1981
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1982
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1983
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1984
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1985
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1986
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1987
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1988
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1989
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1990
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
1991
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
1992
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
1993
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
1994
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
1995
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
1996
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
1997
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
1998
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
1999
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2000
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2001
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2002
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2003
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2004
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2005
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2006
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2007
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2008
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2009
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2010
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2011
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2012
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2013
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2014
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2015
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2016
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2017
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2018
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2019
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2020
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2021
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2022
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2023
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2024
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2025
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2026
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2027
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2028
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2029
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2030
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2031
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2032
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2033
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2034
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2035
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2036
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2037
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2038
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2039
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2040
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2041
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2042
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2043
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2044
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2045
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2046
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2047
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2048
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2049
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2050
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2051
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2052
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2053
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2054
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2055
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2056
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2057
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2058
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2059
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2060
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2061
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2062
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2063
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2064
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2065
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2066
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2067
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2068
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2069
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2070
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2071
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2072
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2073
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2074
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2075
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2076
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2077
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2078
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2079
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2080
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2081
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2082
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2083
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2084
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2085
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2086
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2087
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2088
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2089
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2090
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2091
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2092
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2093
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2094
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2095
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2096
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2097
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2098
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2099
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2100
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2101
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2102
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2103
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2104
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2105
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2106
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2107
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2108
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2109
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2110
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2111
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2112
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2113
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2114
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2115
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2116
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2117
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2118
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2119
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2120
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2121
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2122
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2123
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2124
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2125
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2126
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2127
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2128
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2129
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2130
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2131
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2132
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2133
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2134
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2135
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2136
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2137
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2138
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2139
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2140
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2141
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2142
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2143
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2144
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2145
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2146
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2147
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2148
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2149
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2150
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2151
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2152
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2153
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2154
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2155
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2156
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2157
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2158
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2159
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2160
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2161
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2162
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2163
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2164
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2165
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2166
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2167
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2168
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2169
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2170
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2171
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2172
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2173
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2174
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2175
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2176
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2177
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2178
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2179
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2180
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2181
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2182
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2183
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2184
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2185
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2186
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2187
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2188
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2189
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2190
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2191
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2192
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2193
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2194
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2195
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2196
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2197
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2198
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2199
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2200
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2201
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2202
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2203
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2204
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2205
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2206
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2207
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2208
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2209
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2210
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2211
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2212
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2213
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2214
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2215
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2216
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2217
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2218
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2219
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2220
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2221
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2222
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2223
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2224
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2225
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2226
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2227
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2228
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2229
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2230
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2231
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2232
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2233
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2234
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2235
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2236
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2237
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2238
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2239
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2240
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2241
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2242
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2243
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2244
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2245
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2246
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2247
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2248
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2249
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2250
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2251
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2252
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2253
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2254
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2255
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2256
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2257
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2258
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2259
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2260
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2261
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2262
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2263
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2264
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2265
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2266
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2267
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2268
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2269
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2270
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2271
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2272
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2273
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2274
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2275
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2276
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2277
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2278
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2279
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2280
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2281
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2282
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2283
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2284
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2285
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2286
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2287
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2288
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2289
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2290
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2291
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2292
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2293
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2294
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2295
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2296
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2297
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2298
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2299
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2300
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2301
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2302
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2303
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2304
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2305
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2306
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2307
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2308
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2309
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2310
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2311
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2312
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2313
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2314
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2315
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2316
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2317
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2318
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2319
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2320
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2321
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2322
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2323
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2324
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2325
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2326
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2327
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2328
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2329
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2330
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2331
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2332
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2333
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2334
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2335
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2336
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2337
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2338
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2339
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2340
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2341
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2342
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2343
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2344
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2345
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2346
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2347
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2348
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2349
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2350
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2351
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2352
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2353
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2354
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2355
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2356
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2357
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2358
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2359
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2360
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2361
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2362
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2363
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2364
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2365
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2366
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2367
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2368
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2369
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2370
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2371
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2372
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2373
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2374
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2375
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2376
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2377
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2378
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2379
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2380
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2381
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2382
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2383
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2384
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2385
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2386
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2387
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2388
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2389
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2390
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2391
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2392
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2393
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2394
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2395
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2396
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2397
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2398
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2399
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2400
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2401
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2402
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2403
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2404
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2405
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2406
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2407
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2408
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2409
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2410
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2411
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2412
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2413
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2414
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2415
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2416
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2417
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2418
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2419
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2420
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2421
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2422
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2423
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2424
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2425
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2426
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2427
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2428
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2429
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2430
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2431
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2432
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2433
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2434
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2435
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2436
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2437
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2438
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2439
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2440
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2441
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2442
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2443
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2444
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2445
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2446
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2447
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2448
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2449
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2450
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2451
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2452
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2453
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2454
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2455
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2456
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2457
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2458
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2459
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2460
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2461
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2462
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2463
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2464
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2465
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2466
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2467
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2468
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2469
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2470
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2471
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2472
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2473
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2474
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2475
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2476
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2477
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2478
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2479
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2480
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2481
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2482
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2483
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2484
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2485
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2486
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2487
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2488
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2489
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2490
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2491
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2492
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2493
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2494
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2495
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2496
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2497
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2498
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2499
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2500
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2501
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2502
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2503
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2504
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2505
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2506
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2507
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2508
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2509
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2510
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2511
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2512
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2513
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2514
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2515
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2516
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2517
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2518
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2519
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2520
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2521
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2522
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2523
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2524
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2525
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2526
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2527
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2528
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2529
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2530
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2531
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2532
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2533
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2534
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2535
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2536
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2537
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2538
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2539
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2540
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2541
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2542
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2543
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2544
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2545
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2546
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2547
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2548
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2549
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2550
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2551
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2552
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2553
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2554
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2555
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2556
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2557
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2558
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2559
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2560
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2561
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2562
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2563
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2564
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2565
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2566
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2567
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2568
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2569
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2570
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2571
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2572
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2573
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2574
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2575
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2576
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2577
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2578
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2579
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2580
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2581
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2582
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2583
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2584
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2585
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2586
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2587
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2588
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2589
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2590
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2591
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2592
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2593
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2594
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2595
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2596
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2597
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2598
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2599
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2600
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2601
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2602
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2603
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2604
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2605
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2606
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2607
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2608
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2609
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2610
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2611
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2612
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2613
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2614
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2615
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2616
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2617
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2618
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2619
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2620
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2621
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2622
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2623
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2624
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2625
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2626
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2627
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2628
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2629
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2630
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2631
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2632
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2633
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2634
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2635
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2636
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2637
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2638
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2639
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2640
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2641
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2642
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2643
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2644
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2645
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2646
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2647
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2648
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2649
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2650
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2651
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2652
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2653
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2654
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2655
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2656
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2657
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2658
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2659
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2660
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2661
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2662
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2663
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2664
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2665
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2666
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2667
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2668
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2669
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2670
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2671
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2672
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2673
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2674
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2675
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2676
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2677
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2678
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2679
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2680
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2681
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2682
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2683
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2684
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2685
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2686
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2687
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2688
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2689
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2690
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2691
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2692
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2693
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2694
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2695
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2696
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2697
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2698
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2699
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2700
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2701
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2702
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2703
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2704
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2705
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2706
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2707
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2708
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2709
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2710
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2711
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2712
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2713
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2714
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2715
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2716
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2717
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2718
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2719
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2720
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2721
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2722
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2723
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2724
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2725
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2726
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2727
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2728
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2729
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2730
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2731
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2732
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2733
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2734
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2735
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2736
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2737
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2738
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2739
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2740
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2741
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2742
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2743
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2744
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2745
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2746
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2747
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2748
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2749
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2750
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2751
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2752
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2753
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2754
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2755
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2756
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2757
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2758
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2759
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2760
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2761
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2762
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2763
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2764
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2765
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2766
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2767
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2768
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2769
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2770
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2771
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2772
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2773
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2774
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2775
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2776
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2777
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2778
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2779
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2780
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2781
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2782
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2783
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2784
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2785
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2786
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2787
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2788
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2789
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2790
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2791
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2792
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2793
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2794
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2795
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2796
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2797
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2798
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2799
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2800
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2801
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2802
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2803
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2804
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2805
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2806
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2807
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2808
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2809
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2810
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2811
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2812
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2813
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2814
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2815
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2816
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2817
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2818
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2819
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2820
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2821
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2822
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2823
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2824
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2825
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2826
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2827
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2828
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2829
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2830
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2831
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2832
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2833
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2834
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2835
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2836
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2837
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2838
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2839
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2840
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2841
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2842
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2843
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2844
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2845
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2846
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2847
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2848
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2849
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2850
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2851
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2852
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2853
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2854
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2855
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2856
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2857
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2858
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2859
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2860
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2861
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2862
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2863
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2864
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2865
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2866
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2867
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2868
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2869
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2870
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2871
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2872
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2873
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2874
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2875
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2876
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2877
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2878
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2879
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2880
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2881
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2882
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2883
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2884
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2885
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2886
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2887
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2888
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2889
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2890
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2891
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2892
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2893
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2894
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2895
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2896
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2897
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2898
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2899
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2900
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2901
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2902
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2903
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2904
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2905
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2906
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2907
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2908
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2909
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2910
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2911
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2912
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2913
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2914
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2915
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2916
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2917
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2918
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2919
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2920
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2921
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2922
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2923
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2924
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2925
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2926
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2927
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2928
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2929
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2930
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2931
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2932
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2933
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2934
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2935
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2936
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2937
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2938
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2939
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2940
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2941
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2942
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2943
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2944
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2945
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2946
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2947
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2948
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2949
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2950
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2951
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2952
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2953
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2954
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2955
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2956
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2957
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2958
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2959
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2960
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2961
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2962
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2963
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2964
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2965
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2966
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2967
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2968
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2969
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2970
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2971
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2972
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2973
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2974
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2975
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2976
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2977
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2978
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2979
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2980
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2981
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2982
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2983
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2984
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2985
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2986
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2987
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2988
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2989
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2990
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
2991
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
2992
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
2993
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
2994
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
2995
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
2996
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
2997
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
2998
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
2999
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3000
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3001
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
3002
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
3003
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
3004
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
3005
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
3006
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
3007
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
3008
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3009
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3010
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
3011
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
3012
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
3013
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
3014
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
3015
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
3016
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
3017
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3018
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3019
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
3020
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
3021
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
3022
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
3023
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
3024
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
3025
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
3026
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3027
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3028
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
3029
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
3030
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
3031
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
3032
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
3033
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
3034
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
3035
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3036
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3037
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
3038
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
3039
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
3040
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
3041
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
3042
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
3043
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
3044
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3045
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3046
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
3047
Different phases of fracture healing
The inflammatory phase (hours to days) - includes stages of haematoma formation, tissue death, and inflammation /cellular proliferation
(in this phase callus has not formed)
The reparative phase (days to weeks) - includes stages of angiogenesis/procallus formation, soft callus formation, hard callus formation/ consolidation
Final phase is the remodelling phase - (months to years) remodelling of the callus so that the fracture line becomes completely obscured (radiographic union)
3048
CT scan, what is it?
Computed Tomography (CT) scanning, uses narrow X-ray beams to produce slices of an object that are then digitally reassembled to generate 2D and 3D images.
3049
CT scans - Adv
Whole body CT can be performed in a short time (few minutes) to look for bone or soft tissue injury
Spinal fractures and other complex fractures like pelvic fractures are seen in great detail, which aids pre-operative planning
It is far better than plain radiography for imaging soft-tissues, and the ability to manipulate the image with computer software allows for the visualisation of many different soft tissue densities within one slice. Also allows for multiple anatomical planes to be gathered
Due to this it can be used in guiding injections, biopsies and identifying subtle fractures. Whole body CT scanning can be performed in just a few minutes to look for bone or soft tissue injuries
3050
CT scans - Dis
If a patient moves whilst in the CT scan, ‘motion artefact’ can distort the image making interpretation difficult
there is exposure to a higher radiation dose than with plain X-rays
severely obese patients cannot always be accommodated within the scanner.
Most CT scans are performed with injection of intravenous contrast; some patients can be allergic to this contrast and very rarely, it can cause anaphylaxis.
3051
Interpreting CT scans
Density of body tissues is measured in Hounsfield Units (HU)
Tissue:
<0 HU appears dark (air (-1000), fat (-75), water (0))
0 to +40 HU appears in shades of grey (soft tissue)
>+100 HU appears white (spongy bone (+400), cortical bone (+1000))
3052
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) how does it work?
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) does not use radiation but instead uses a strong magnet to generate a magnetic field in which the protons in hydrogen atoms line up. Radiofrequency signal pulses are then applied to the tissue which deflects the protons.
This signal is detected and the data from this is used to create the 3D image.
MRI is used in musculoskeletal medicine to define normal anatomy and to detect pathology e.g. abnormal fluid
MRI is better than CT and X-ray in assessment of the soft tissue.
3053
MRI - T1 weight images and T2 weighted images
On a T1 weighted image, fat appears bright and fluid appears dark.
On a T2 weighted image, both fat and fluid appear bright.
In a STIR sequence (a fluid-sensitive sequence), the signal from fat is supressed and it appears dark, whilst fluid appears bright. - so all the signal is lost except fluid and oedema signal
3054
MRI - Adv vs Dis
Advantages
3055
Ultrasound
Ultrasonography uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images. The sound waves are produced by a transducer and travel through the patient. Tissues and tissue planes deflect the waves back to the transducer and are then analysed to create an image.
