Reading Rockets-Reading Strategies

Question 1

Alphabet Matching-Phonics

Answer 1

Very young learners are developing their understanding of the alphabetic principle — the understanding that there are systematic and predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds. Teachers can help students develop this understanding through lots of fun activities that help students explore the alphabet letters and sounds.
Why teach about the alphabet?

Letter naming is a strong predictor of later reading success
Learning letter names helps a child learn letter sounds
It helps students develop their understanding of the alphabetic principle

When to use: 	Before reading 	During reading 	After reading
How to use: 	Individually 	With small groups 	Whole class setting

Question 2

Matching Books to Phonics Features

Answer 2

There are several ways to match books to readers — by reader interest, by reading level, and by the phonics feature(s) a particular child is learning. Careful pairing of reading with phonics study gives children a chance to apply what they are learning about letters and sounds to the reading of words and stories. Because the goal of phonics instruction is to help children use the alphabetic system to read and spell words, it’s important to provide students with this practice.

Question 3

Why match books to phonics features?

Answer 3

Phonics instruction teaches students the relationships between letters and individual sounds. An important step in teaching phonics is to provide students with practice in applying what they’ve learned to real reading and writing. Effective early reading instruction uses materials (books, stories, poems) that contain a large number of words that children can decode. Other instruction might provide opportunities to spell words and write stories that also contain the same phonics features.

Question 4

Anticipation Guide-Comprehension

Answer 4

An anticipation guide is a comprehension strategy that is used before reading to activate students’ prior knowledge and build curiosity about a new topic. Before reading, students listen to or read several statements about key concepts presented in the text; they’re often structured as a series of statements with which the students can choose to agree or disagree. Anticipation guides stimulate students’ interest in a topic and set a purpose for reading.

Question 5

Why use anticipation guides?

Answer 5

They teach students to make predictions, anticipate the text, and verify their predictions.
They connect new information to prior knowledge and build curiosity about a new topic.

Question 6

How to use an anticipation guide

Answer 6

Construct the anticipation guide. Construction of the anticipation guide should be as simple as possible for younger students. Write four to six statements about key ideas in the text; some true and some false. Include columns following each statement, which can be left blank or can be labeled Yes, or No (Maybe can also be used).

    NOTE: Teachers may wish to create an additional column for revisiting the guide after the material has been read. 

Model the process. Introduce the text or reading material and share the guide with the students. Model the process of responding to the statements and marking the columns.
Read each of the statements and ask the students if they agree or disagree with it. Provide the opportunity for discussion. The emphasis is not on right answers but to share what they know and to make predictions.
Read the text aloud or have students read the selection individually. If reading aloud, teachers should read slowly and stop at places in the text that correspond to each of the statements.
Bring closure to the reading by revisiting each of the statements.

Question 7

Concept Maps-Comprehension

Answer 7

A concept map is a visual organizer that can enrich students’ understanding of a new concept. Using a graphic organizer, students think about the concept in several ways. Most concept map organizers engage students in answering questions such as, “What is it? What is it like? What are some examples?” Concept maps deepen understanding and comprehension.

Question 8

Why use a concept map?

Answer 8

It helps children organize new information.
It helps students to make meaningful connections between the main idea and other information.
They’re easy to construct and can be used within any content area.

Question 9

How to use a concept map

Answer 9

Note: It is important that teachers spend time introducing younger students to charts and diagrams prior to using this strategy.

There are several ways to construct concept maps. Most include the following steps:

Model how to identify the major ideas or concepts presented in a selection of text as you read.
Organize the ideas into categories. Remind students that your organization may change as you continue to read and add more information.
Use lines or arrows on the map to represent how ideas are connected to one another, a particular category, and/or the main concept. Limit the amount of information on the map to avoid frustration.
After students have finished the map, encourage them to share and reflect on how they each made the connections between concepts.
Encourage students to use the concept map to summarize what was read.

Teachers can use concept maps as a pre-reading strategy by inviting students to share what they already know about a particular concept. While reading, teachers should ask students to help add to the map as a group using an overhead or large chart. This provides a visual aid for building upon their prior knowledge with new information they have gathered from reading.
Teachers may wish to have students practice writing skills by asking students to write on their own concept map.
Teach vocabulary words explicitly and use simple words.
Be sure the pointed part of each arrow is clear. Design the graphics to minimize directional confusion.
When applicable, allow students to draw pictures or use cut out pictures as well as words.

Question 10

Concept Sort-Comprehension

Answer 10

A concept sort is a vocabulary and comprehension strategy used to familiarize students with the vocabulary of a new topic or book. Teachers provide students with a list of terms or concepts from reading material. Students place words into different categories based on each word’s meaning. Categories can be defined by the teacher or by the students. When used before reading, concept sorts provide an opportunity for a teacher to see what his or her students already know about the given content. When used after reading, teachers can assess their students’ understanding of the concepts presented.

Question 11

Why use a concept sort?

Answer 11

It allows teachers to introduce the new vocabulary which students will see in the assigned text.
It provides teachers with information about how much the students already know about a topic.
It familiarizes students with the vocabulary of a new topic or book.

Question 12

How to use a concept sort

Answer 12

If your goal is to teach a concept such as rough/smooth, gather 10-15 objects or pictures that have rough and smooth textures. Or, if your goal is to teach a concept or vocabulary that is presented in a book, choose 10-15 relevant, important words from the book.
Working individually, in small groups or as a class, have the students sort the cards or objects into meaningful groups. The groups (or categories) can be pre-defined by the teacher (often called a closed sort) or by the students (often called an open sort).
Discuss the categories used within the different groups. Describe why certain cards were placed within certain groups.

Question 13

Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA)

Answer 13

The Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is a comprehension strategy that guides students in asking questions about a text, making predictions, and then reading to confirm or refute their predictions. The DRTA process encourages students to be active and thoughtful readers, enhancing their comprehension.

Question 14

Why use directed reading thinking activity?

Answer 14

It encourages students to be active and
thoughtful readers.
It activates students’ prior knowledge.
It teaches students to monitor their understanding of the text as they’re reading.
It helps strengthen reading and critical thinking skills.

Question 15

How to use directed reading thinking activity

Answer 15

Teachers should follow the steps below when creating a DRTA.

Determine the text to be used and pre-select points for students to pause during the reading process.
Introduce the text, the purpose of the DRTA, and provide examples of how to make predictions.

Note: Be aware of the reading levels of each student, and be prepared to provide appropriate questions, prompts, and support as needed.
Use the following outline to guide the procedure:

    D = DIRECT. Teachers direct and activate students' thinking prior to reading a passage by scanning the title, chapter headings, illustrations, and other materials. Teachers should use open-ended questions to direct students as they make predictions about the content or perspective of the text (e.g., "Given this title, what do you think the passage will be about?").

    R = READING. Students read up to the first pre-selected stopping point. The teacher then prompts the students with questions about specific information and asks them to evaluate their predictions and refine them if necessary. This process should be continued until students have read each section of the passage.

    T = THINKING. At the end of each section, students go back through the text and think about their predictions. Students should verify or modify their predictions by finding supporting statements in the text. The teacher asks questions such as:
        What do you think about your predictions now?
        What did you find in the text to prove your predictions?
        What did you we read in the text that made you change your predictions?

Question 16

Exit Slips

Answer 16

Exit slips are written student responses to questions teachers pose at the end of a class or lesson. These quick, informal assessments enable teachers to quickly assess students’ understanding of the material.

Question 17

How to use exit slips

Answer 17

At the end of your lesson ask students to respond to a question or prompt.

Note: There are three categories of exit slips (Fisher & Frey, 2004):
    Prompts that document learning:
    —Example: Write one thing you learned today.
    —Example: Discuss how today's lesson could be used in the real world.

    Prompts that emphasize the process of learning:
    —Example: I didn't understand…
    —Example: Write one question you have about today's lesson.

    Prompts to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction:
    —Example: Did you enjoy working in small groups today?

    Other exit prompts include:
    —I would like to learn more about…
    —Please explain more about…
    —The thing that surprised me the most today was…
    —I wish…

You may state the prompt orally to your students or project it visually on an overhead or blackboard.
You may want to distribute 3 x 5 cards for students to write down their responses.
Review the exit slips to determine how you may need to alter your instruction to better meet the needs of all your students.
Collect the exit slips as a part of an assessment portfolio for each student.

Question 18

First Lines

Answer 18

First Lines is a pre-reading comprehension strategy in which students read the beginning sentences from a book and then make predictions about that book. This technique helps students focus their attention on what they can tell from the first lines of a story, play, poem, or other text. As students read the text in its entirety they discuss, revisit and/or revise their original predictions.

Question 19

Why use first lines?

Answer 19

It helps students learn to make predictions about the content of what they’re about to read or what is about to be read to them.
It helps students focus their attention on what they can tell from the first lines of a story, play, poem, or other text.

Question 20

How to use first lines

Answer 20

Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students. Ask students read only the first line of the assigned text, or if using your read aloud, read aloud only the first line.
    Ask students to make predictions for the reading based on the first sentence.
    Engage the class in discussion about the predictions.
    Encourage students to return to their original predictions after reading the text, assessing their original predictions and building evidence to support those predictions which are accurate. Students can create new predictions as well.

Question 21

Inference

Answer 21

Observations occur when we can see something happening. In contrast, inferences are what we figure out based on an experience. Helping students understand when information is implied, or not directly stated, will improve their skill in drawing conclusions and making inferences. These skills will be needed for all sorts of school assignments, including reading, science and social studies. Inferential thinking is a complex skill that will develop over time and with experience.

Question 22

Why teach inference?

Answer 22

Inference is a complex skill that can be taught through explicit instruction in inferential strategies
Inferring requires higher order thinking skills, which makes it a difficult skill for many students.

Question 23

How to teach inference

Answer 23

One simplified model for teaching inference includes the following assumptions:

We need to find clues to get some answers.
We need to add those clues to what we already know or have read.
There can be more than one correct answer.
We need to be able to support inferences.

Marzano (2010) suggests teachers pose four questions to students to facilitate a discussion about inferences.

What is my inference?
This question helps students become aware that they may have just made an inference by filling in information that wasn't directly presented.
What information did I use to make this inference?
It's important for students to understand the various types of information they use to make inferences. This may include information presented in the text, or it may be background knowledge that a student brings to the learning setting.
How good was my thinking?
According to Marzano, once students have identified the premises on which they've based their inferences, they can engage in the most powerful part of the process — examining the validity of their thinking.
Do I need to change my thinking?
The final step in the process is for students to consider possible changes in their thinking. The point here is not to invalidate students' original inferences, but rather to help them develop the habit of continually updating their thinking as they gather new information.

One model that teachers can use to teach inference is called “It says, I say, and so” developed by Kylene Beers (2003). Click below to see graphic organizer examples from Goldilocks and the Three Bears, as well as the steps to solving a math problem about area and diameter

Question 24

Inquiry Chart

Answer 24

The Inquiry Chart (I-chart) is a strategy that enables students to gather information about a topic from several sources. Teachers design the I-chart around several questions about a topic. Students read or listen to several sources on the topic and record answers to the posed questions within the I-chart. Students generate a summary in the final row. Different answers from various perspectives can be explored as a class.

Question 25

Why use an inquiry chart?

Answer 25

It fosters critical thinking and strengthens reading skills. It teaches younger students to generate meaningful questions about a topic and learn to organize their writing. Students build upon prior knowledge or thoughts about the topic by sharing interesting facts. It can serve as an evaluation tool for how much a student has learned about a topic.

Question 26

How to use an inquiry chart

Answer 26

- The teacher provides each student with a blank I-chart and assists with topic selection OR provides the pre-selected topic. - The students engage in forming questions about the topic. Those questions are placed at the top of each individual column. - The rows are for recording any information students already know and the key ideas pulled from several different sources of information. The last row gives students the opportunity to pull together the ideas into a general summary. - Teachers may ask students to resolve competing ideas found in the separate sources or develop new questions to explore based on any conflicting or incomplete information. The planning phase includes: 1. identifying the topic 2. forming questions 3. constructing the I-chart 4. collecting materials The next step is to engage students in the interacting phase which involves: 1. exploring prior knowledge 2. sharing of interesting facts 3. reading and rereading Finally, teachers guide the students through the integrating and evaluation phase by: 1. summarizing 2. comparing 3. researching 4. reporting

Question 27

Jigsaw

Answer 27

Jigsaw is a cooperative learning strategy that enables each student of a "home" group to specialize in one aspect of a topic (for example, one group studies habitats of rainforest animals, another group studies predators of rainforest animals). Students meet with members from other groups who are assigned the same aspect, and after mastering the material, return to the "home" group and teach the material to their group members. With this strategy, each student in the "home" group serves as a piece of the topic's puzzle and when they work together as a whole, they create the complete jigsaw puzzle.

Question 28

Why use jigsaw?

Answer 28

- It helps build comprehension. - It encourages cooperative learning among students. - It helps improve listening, communication, and problem-solving skills.

Question 29

How to use jigsaw

Answer 29

Introduce the strategy and the topic to be studied. Assign each student to a "home group" of 3-5 students who reflect a range of reading abilities. Determine a set of reading selections and assign one selection to each student. Create "expert groups" that consist of students across "home groups" who will read the same selection. Give all students a framework for managing their time on the various parts of the jigsaw task. Provide key questions to help the "expert groups" gather information in their particular area. Provide materials and resources necessary for all students to learn about their topics and become "experts." Note: It is important that the reading material assigned is at appropriate instructional levels (90–95% reading accuracy). Discuss the rules for reconvening into "home groups" and provide guidelines as each "expert" reports the information learned. Prepare a summary chart or graphic organizer for each "home group" as a guide for organizing the experts' information report. Remind students that "home group" members are responsible to learn all content from one another.

Question 30

Listen-Read-Discuss (LRD)

Answer 30

The listen-read-discuss strategy helps students comprehend text. Before reading, students listen to a short lecture delivered by the teacher. The students then read a text selection about the topic. After reading, there is a large group discussion or students engage in small group discussions about the topic. During the discussion, students compare and contrast the information from the lecture with the information they read.

Question 31

Why use listen-read-discuss?

Answer 31

It helps students comprehend material presented orally. It builds students' prior knowledge before they read a text. It engages struggling readers in classroom discussions.

Question 32

How to use listen-read-discuss

Answer 32

Listen: Present information to students about the book they will be reading. This can be in the form of a short lecture on the topic, using a graphic organizer to guide the lecture. Read: Ask students to read a text selection. The content should be similar to the material presented during the "listen" portion of the lesson. Discuss: Lead a classroom discussion of the material. Encourage students to reflect on any differences between their reading of the content and your presentation.

Question 33

Paragraph Shrinking

Answer 33

Paragraph shrinking is an activity developed as part of the Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS). The paragraph shrinking strategy allows each student to take turns reading, pausing, and summarizing the main points of each paragraph. Students provide each other with feedback as a way to monitor comprehension.

Question 34

Why use paragraph shrinking?

Answer 34

It helps students develop their reading comprehension skills. It allows each student to take turns reading, pausing, and summarizing the main points of each paragraph. Note: Paragraph shrinking was developed as one of the Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) at the Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development. Because of that, the directions below describe a procedure where students work with a peer to complete the strategy.

Question 35

How to use paragraph shrinking

Answer 35

- Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students. - Create pairs within the classroom by identifying which children require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate children are to help other children learn those skills. - Model the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the strategy. - Have each member of the teacher-assigned pair take turns being "Coach" and "Player." - Ask each student to read aloud for 5 minutes without rereading a text. After each paragraph, students should stop to summarize the main points of the reading. Ask students to then summarize the following information: The who or what of the paragraph The most important thing about who or what The main idea Note: If a "Player" ever gives a wrong answer, the "Coach" asks the "Player" to skim the paragraph again and answer question a second time. - Ask students to state the main idea in 10 words or less which will encourage them to monitor comprehension while taking turns reading. - Award each pair points when the above goals of the strategy are met

Question 36

Partner Reading-Why use it

Answer 36

It is a cooperative learning strategy in which two students are encouraged to work together to read an assigned text. It allows students to take turns reading and provide each other with feedback as a way to monitor comprehension. It provides a model of fluent reading and helps students learn decoding skills by offering positive feedback. It provides direct opportunities for a teacher to circulate in the class, observe students, and offer individual remediation.

Question 37

How to use partner reading

Answer 37

Choose the assigned reading and introduce the text to the students. Create pairs within the classroom by identifying which children require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate children are to help other children learn those skills. Model the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the strategy. Have each member of the teacher-assigned pair take turns being "Coach" and "Player." These pairs are changed regularly, and over a period of time as students work. Thus, all students have the opportunity to be "coaches" and "players." Note: It is important for teachers to monitor and support students as they work together. Ask the stronger reader to begin this activity as the "Player" and read orally for 5 minutes. Have the "Coach" follow along and correct any mistakes when necessary. Have the pair switch roles and ask the weaker reader to become the "Player." The "Player" rereads the same passage for the next 5 minutes and the "Coach" provides corrective feedback. One point is earned for each correct sentence read (optional).

Question 38

Question the Author

Answer 38

Questioning the author is a strategy that engages students actively with a text. Rather than reading and taking information from a text, the QtA strategy encourages students to ask questions of the author and the text. Through forming their questions, students learn more about the text. Students learn to ask questions such as: What is the author's message? Does the author explain this clearly? How does this connect to what the author said earlier?

Question 39

Why use question the author?

Answer 39

It engages students in the reading and helps to solidify their understanding of a text. It teaches students to form questions to the author while reading. It teaches students to critique the author's writing.

Question 40

How to use question the author

Answer 40

Beck et al. (1997) identify specific steps you should follow during a question the author lesson. This strategy is best suited for nonfiction texts. Select a passage that is both interesting and can spur a good conversation. Decide appropriate stopping points where you think your students need to obtain a greater understanding. Create queries or questions for each stopping point. What is the author trying to say? Why do you think the author used the following phrase? Does this make sense to you? Display a short passage to your students along with one or two queries you have designed ahead of time. Model for your students how to think through the queries. Ask students to read and work through the queries you have prepared for their readings.

Question 41

Question-Answer Relationship (QAR)

Answer 41

The question–answer relationship (QAR) strategy helps students understand the different types of questions. By learning that the answers to some questions are "Right There" in the text, that some answers require a reader to "Think and Search," and that some answers can only be answered "On My Own," students recognize that they must first consider the question before developing an answer.

Question 42

Why use question–answer relationship?

Answer 42

It can improve students' reading comprehension. It teaches students how to ask questions about their reading and where to find the answers to them. It helps students to think about the text they are reading and beyond it, too. It inspires them to think creatively and work cooperatively while challenging them to use higher-level thinking skills.

Question 43

How to use question–answer relationship

Answer 43

Explain to students that there are four types of questions they will encounter. Define each type of question and give an example. Four types of questions are examined in the QAR: Right There Questions: Literal questions whose answers can be found in the text. Often the words used in the question are the same words found in the text. Think and Search Questions: Answers are gathered from several parts of the text and put together to make meaning. Author and You: These questions are based on information provided in the text but the student is required to relate it to their own experience. Although the answer does not lie directly in the text, the student must have read it in order to answer the question. On My Own: These questions do not require the student to have read the passage but he/she must use their background or prior knowledge to answer the question. Read a short passage aloud to your students. Have predetermined questions you will ask after you stop reading. When you have finished reading, read the questions aloud to students and model how you decide which type of question you have been asked to answer. Show students how find information to answer the question (i.e., in the text, from your own experiences, etc.).

Question 44

Reading Guide

Answer 44

Reading guides can assist with developing students' comprehension. They help students navigate reading material, especially difficult chapters or nonfiction reading. Students respond to a teacher-created written guide of prompts as they read an assigned text. Reading Guides help students to comprehend the main points of the reading and understand the organizational structure of a text.

Question 45

Why use a reading guide?

Answer 45

It can be developed for a variety of reading material and reading levels. It helps guide students through what they are about to read, and helps students monitor their comprehension while reading. It helps students to follow the main points of the reading and understand the organization of a text. It helps readers to think actively as they read and have a purpose for reading.

Question 46

How to use reading guides

Answer 46

The teacher determines the major ideas from a book or an assigned reading and considers each student's knowledge related to the concepts. Teachers then write questions or statements designed to guide readers through the major ideas and supporting details of the text. Guides may be phrased as statements or as questions. Teachers begin the procedure by introducing the assigned book, discussing the main ideas, and new vocabulary. Teachers then discuss the statements or ask the questions on the Reading Guide. Teachers may read the selection aloud or students read the assigned text as teachers monitor reading. Teachers and students work together to respond to statements or questions on the reading guides during the reading process. Teachers should monitor and support students as they work. Note: As students gain proficiency at completing reading guides, they may design their own guides and provide support for one another.

Question 47

What items might you include in a reading guide?

Answer 47

The following is a list of sample items that teachers might include on a Reading Guide: What do you think this book is about? What/Who were the characters, places, and events that took place? What happened in the story? Why did the author write this book? The author discusses the differences between ____ and ____ . The main idea of this book is... What new information have you learned from the book?

Question 48

Reciprocal Teaching

Answer 48

Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity in which students become the teacher in small group reading sessions. Teachers model, then help students learn to guide group discussions using four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. Once students have learned the strategies, they take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading a dialogue about what has been read.

Question 49

Why use reciprocal teaching?

Answer 49

It encourages students to think about their own thought process during reading. It helps students learn to be actively involved and monitor their comprehension as they read. It teaches students to ask questions during reading and helps make the text more comprehensible.

Question 50

How to use reciprocal teaching

Answer 50

efore Reciprocal Teaching can be used successfully by your students, they need to have been taught and had time to practice the four strategies that are used in reciprocal teaching (summarizing, questioning, predicting, clarifying). One way to get students prepared to use reciprocal teaching: (from Donna Dyer of the North West Regional Education Service Agency in North Carolina) 1. Put students in groups of four. 2. Distribute one note card to each member of the group identifying each person's unique role: Summarizer Questioner Clarifier Predictor 3. Have students read a few paragraphs of the assigned text selection. Encourage them to use note-taking strategies such as selective underlining or sticky-notes to help them better prepare for their role in the discussion. 4. At the given stopping point, the Summarizer will highlight the key ideas up to this point in the reading. 5. The Questioner will then pose questions about the selection: Unclear parts Puzzling information Connections to other concepts already learned 6. The Clarifier will address confusing parts and attempt to answer the questions that were just posed. 7. The Predictor can offer predictions about what the author will tell the group next or, if it's a literary selection, the predictor might suggest what the next events in the story will be. 8. The roles in the group then switch one person to the right, and the next selection is read. Students repeat the process using their new roles. This continues until the entire selection is read. (Source: ReadingQuest) 9. Throughout the process, the teacher's role is to guide and nurture the students' ability to use the four strategies successfully within the small group. The teacher's role is lessened as students develop skill.

Question 51

Story Maps

Answer 51

A story map is a strategy that uses a graphic organizer to help students learn the elements of a book or story. By identifying story characters, plot, setting, problem and solution, students read carefully to learn the details. There are many different types of story map graphic organizers. The most basic focus on the beginning, middle, and end of the story. More advanced organizers focus more on plot or character traits.

Question 52

Why use story maps?

Answer 52

They improve students' comprehension They provide students with a framework for identifying the elements of a story. They help students of varying abilities organize information and ideas efficiently.

Question 53

How to use story maps

Answer 53

Discuss the main components of a story (e.g., characters, setting, plot and theme OR beginning, middle, end). Provide each student with a blank story map organizer and model how to complete it. As students read, have them complete the story map. After reading, they should fill in any missing parts. Examples Language Arts This example demonstrates how story maps are used with an Arthur story. Students identify the setting, characters, the problem, and the solution in the story. See example > (20K PDF)* Math Story maps can be used to help students solve open-ended math problems. Or students can use the story map to create their own math problems. Social Studies Using the format of the story map, students can create their own map by taking a walk around the playground or school. Encourage students to include positional words in their story map writing.

Question 54

Story Sequence

Answer 54

Helping students learn to recall the facts of a story in the proper order is a skill that aids comprehension. Sequencing is an important part of problem solving across subjects.

Question 55

Why teach story sequence?

Answer 55

It assists with comprehension. | Sequence structures help students of varying abilities organize information and ideas efficiently.

Question 56

Story Sequence Examples

Answer 56

Examples Language Arts Story maps provide one way to help students organize the events from a story. Helping students learn transition or signal words that indicate a sequence (first, second, last) will also help them learn about sequence. Sequence sticks, story chains, and a story sequence craft all help students practice ordering events within a story. See these ideas from Suite 101.com. Math Most math curricula include worksheets on ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc). Patterns are also a form of sequencing my encouraging the use of vocabulary words such as "What bead goes first? Then which bead? Which bead is third?" Encouraging students to write out the steps for solving addition and subtraction problems that include regrouping is an excellent way to have them think through the steps in order. Teachers can use a simple sheet of paper folded into four squares. Ask students to write the steps in order in the squares. Science Helping children sequence also develops their scientific inquiry skills. In order to study or observe changes in something, students must follow along and record changes. The changes happen in a particular order, which kids can document by writing or drawing pictures. Social Studies Timelines are a great way to teach sequence in social studies. Kids may enjoy making a timeline of their own life, and include important milestones such as when they learned to walk, talk, ride a bike and go to school. Once students understand the process of charting important milestones on a timeline, topics from the social studies curricula can be used. This simple example of an explorers timeline illustrates how the spacing between dates indicates the passage of time. Other Ideas for School or Home Create a sequence page for a simple activity around the house or at school. Use any blank sheet of paper. Fold the paper into squares. Start with 4 large squares, for older students create more squares. Ask kids to draw the steps they know in the order in which the steps occur. For example, draw each step it takes to make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich or to brush their teeth. Cut or tear out the pages from an old calendar. Mix up the months and hand out the stack of pages. Ask the kids to order the months from January to December by laying the pages out on the floor. Which month goes first? Then which one? Which month is last?

Question 57

Summarizing

Answer 57

Summarizing teaches students how to discern the most important ideas in a text, how to ignore irrelevant information, and how to integrate the central ideas in a meaningful way. Teaching students to summarize improves their memory for what is read. Summarization strategies can be used in almost every content area.

Question 58

Why use summarizing?

Answer 58

It helps students learn to determine essential ideas and consolidate important details that support them. It enables students to focus on key words and phrases of an assigned text that are worth noting and remembering. It teaches students how to take a large selection of text and reduce it to the main points for more concise understanding.

Question 59

How to use summarizing

Answer 59

Begin by reading OR have students listen to the text selection. Ask students the following framework questions: What are the main ideas? What are the crucial details necessary for supporting the ideas? What information is irrelevant or unnecessary? Have them use key words or phrases to identify the main points from the text.

Question 60

Think-alouds

Answer 60

Think-alouds have been described as "eavesdropping on someone's thinking." With this strategy, teachers verbalize aloud while reading a selection orally. Their verbalizations include describing things they're doing as they read to monitor their comprehension. The purpose of the think-aloud strategy is to model for students how skilled readers construct meaning from a text.

Question 61

Why use think-alouds?

Answer 61

It helps students learn to monitor their thinking as they read and improves their comprehension. It teaches students to re-read a sentence, read ahead to clarify, and/or look for context clues to make sense of what they read. It slows down the reading process and allows students to monitor their understanding of a text.

Question 62

How to use think-alouds

Answer 62

Begin by modeling this strategy. Model your thinking as you read. Do this at points in the text that may be confusing for students (new vocabulary, unusual sentence construction). Introduce the assigned text and discuss the purpose of the Think-Aloud strategy. Develop the set of questions to support thinking aloud (see examples below). What do I know about this topic? What do I think I will learn about this topic? Do I understand what I just read? Do I have a clear picture in my head about this information? What more can I do to understand this? What were the most important points in this reading? What new information did I learn? How does it fit in with what I already know? Give students opportunities to practice the technique, and offer structured feedback to students. Read the selected passage aloud as the students read the same text silently. At certain points stop and "think aloud" the answers to some of the pre-selected questions. Demonstrate how good readers monitor their understanding by rereading a sentence, reading ahead to clarify, and/or looking for context clues. Students then learn to offer answers to the questions as the teacher leads the Think Aloud.

Question 63

Think-Pair-Share

Answer 63

Think-pair-share (TPS) is a collaborative learning strategy in which students work together to solve a problem or answer a question about an assigned reading. This technique requires students to (1) think individually about a topic or answer to a question; and (2) share ideas with classmates. Discussing an answer with a partner serves to maximize participation, focus attention and engage students in comprehending the reading material.

Question 64

Why use think-pair-share?

Answer 64

It helps students to think individually about a topic or answer to a question. It teaches students to share ideas with classmates and builds oral communication skills. It helps focus attention and engage students in comprehending the reading material.

Question 65

How to use think-pair-share

Answer 65

Decide upon the text to be read and develop the set of questions or prompts that target key content concepts. Describe the purpose of the strategy and provide guidelines for discussions. Model the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the strategy. Monitor and support students as they work through the following: T : (Think) Teachers begin by asking a specific question about the text. Students "think" about what they know or have learned about the topic. P : (Pair) Each student should be paired with another student or a small group. S : (Share) Students share their thinking with their partner. Teachers expand the "share" into a whole-class discussion.

Question 66

Visual Imagery

Answer 66

Good readers construct mental images as they read a text. By using prior knowledge and background experiences, readers connect the author's writing with a personal picture. Through guided visualization, students learn how to create mental pictures as they read.

Question 67

Why use visual imagery?

Answer 67

Generating an image while reading requires that the reader be actively engaged with the text. Creating mental images while reading can improve comprehension.

Question 68

How to use visual imagery

Answer 68

Follow these few simple steps to provide practice developing students' mental images: Begin reading. Pause after a few sentences or paragraphs that contain good descriptive information. Share the image you've created in your mind, and talk about which words from the book helped you "draw" your picture. Your picture can relate to the setting, the characters, or the actions. By doing this, you are modeling the kind of picture making you want your child to do. Talk about how these pictures help you understand what's happening in the story. Continue reading. Pause again and share the new image you created. Then ask your child to share what he sees, hears, tastes, smells and feels. Ask what words helped him create the mental image and emotions. By doing this, you are providing your child with practice with this new skill. Are your images identical? Probably not! This is a great time to talk about why your images might be different. Perhaps your child went on a school field trip or had a school assembly that changed the way they created the picture in their mind. Perhaps experiences you've had as an adult influenced what you "drew." These differences are important to understand and respect. Read a longer portion of text and continue the sharing process. Once this is a familiar skill, encourage your child to use mental imagery when she is reading by herself. You can feel confident that these mental pictures will help your child understand the story in an important way.

Question 69

Blending and Segmenting Games-Phonological awareness

Answer 69

Children who can segment and blend sounds easily are able to use this knowledge when reading and spelling. Segmenting and blending individual sounds can be difficult at the beginning. Our recommendation is to begin with segmenting and blending syllables. Once familiar with that, students will be prepared for instruction and practice with individual sounds. When beginning readers sound out words, they slowly say each sound in a word (c-a-t), and then say the sounds quickly together to "read" the word (cat). In reading, teachers call this blending because sounds are being blended together. Blending (combining sounds) and segmenting (separating sounds) are skills that are necessary for learning to read. Developing a child's phonological awareness is an important part of developing a reader. Many research studies indicate that kids who have weak phonological awareness also have weak reading skills. The figure below shows how the teaching of segmenting and blending should progress, starting at the sentence level, moving to syllable, and finally to individual phonemes. Be sure to provide lots of practice at the easier level before moving on

Question 70

Why teach blending and segmenting?

Answer 70

Teaching the skills of segmentation in isolation or in combination with blending instruction helps with successful reading development

Question 71

Examples | Blending

Answer 71

Guess-the-word game This activity, from our article Phonological Awareness: Instructional and Assessment Guidelines, is an example of how to teach students to blend and identify a word that is stretched out into its basic sound elements. Objective: Students will be able to blend and identify a word that is stretched out into its component sounds. Materials needed: Picture cards of objects that students are likely to recognize such as: sun, bell, fan, flag, snake, tree, book, cup, clock, plane Activity: Place a small number of picture cards in front of children. Tell them you are going to say a word using "Snail Talk" a slow way of saying words (e.g., /fffffllllaaaag/). They have to look at the pictures and guess the word you are saying. It is important to have the children guess the answer in their head so that everyone gets an opportunity to try it. Alternate between having one child identify the word and having all children say the word aloud in chorus to keep children engaged. Robot talk Talking in "Robot Talk," students hear segmented sounds and put them together (blend them) into words. See example > (80K PDF)* Note: To see all Blending/Segmenting Activities from this site, visit here. Blending slide The "Reading Genie" offers teachers a simple way to teach students about blends. Teachers can use a picture or small replica of a playground slide and have the sounds "slide" together to form a word. See example > Oral blending activity The information here describes the importance of teaching blending skills to young children. This link provides suggestions for oral sound blending activities to help students practice and develop smooth blending skills. See example > Sound blending using songs This website describes how songs can also be used for blending activities. The following activity (see Yopp, M., 1992) is to the tune of "If You're Happy and You Know It, Clap Your Hands." If you think you know this word, shout it out! If you think you know this word, shout it out! If you think you know this word, Then tell me what you've heard, If you think you know this word, shout it out! After singing, the teacher says a segmented word such as /k/ /a/ /t/ and students provide the blended word "cat." Segmenting This activity, from our article Phonological Awareness: Instructional and Assessment Guidelines is an example of how to teach students to segment, first with sentences, then words, and finally sounds. Early in phonological awareness instruction, teach children to segment sentences into individual words. Identify familiar short poems such as "I scream you scream we all scream for ice cream!" Have children clap their hands with each word. As children advance in their ability to manipulate oral language, teach them to segment words into syllables or onsets and rimes. For example, have children segment their names into syllables: e.g., Ra-chel, Al-ex-an-der, and Rod-ney. When children have learned to remove the first phoneme (sound) of a word, teach them to segment short words into individual phonemes: e.g., s-u-n, p-a-t, s-t-o-p. Segmenting cheer activity This link provides teachers with information on how to conduct the following segmentation cheer activity. See example > (32K PDF)* Write the "Segmentation Cheer" on chart paper, and teach it to children. Each time you say the cheer, change the words in the third line. Have children segment the word sound by sound. Begin with words that have three phonemes, such as ten, rat, cat, dog, soap, read, and fish. Segmentation Cheer Listen to my cheer. Then shout the sounds you hear. Sun! Sun! Sun! Let's take apart the word sun. Give me the beginning sound. (Children respond with /s/.) Give me the middle sound. (Children respond with /u/.) Give me the ending sound. (Children respond with /n/.) That's right! /s/ /u/ /n/-Sun! Sun! Sun! Segmenting with puppets Teachers can use the activity found on this website to help teach students about segmenting sounds. The activity includes the use of a puppet and downloadable picture cards.

Question 72

Elkonin Boxes-Why use? phonological awareness

Answer 72

They help students build phonological awareness by segmenting words into sounds or syllables. They teach students how to count the number of phonemes in the word (not always the number of letters). They help students better understand the alphabetic principle in decoding and spelling.

Question 73

Examples | How to use Elkonin Boxes

Answer 73

Pronounce a target word slowly, stretching it out by sound. Ask the child to repeat the word. Draw "boxes" or squares on a piece of paper, chalkboard, or dry erase board with one box for each syllable or phoneme. Have the child count the number of phonemes in the word, not necessarily the number of letters. For example, wish has three phonemes and will use three boxes. /w/, /i/, /sh/ Direct the child to slide one colored circle, unifix cube, or corresponding letter in each cell of the Elkonin box drawing as he/she repeats the word. The example below shows an Elkonin Box for the word "sheep," which consists of three phonemes (sounds): /sh/ /ee/ /p/ Has a picture of sheep with three separate boxes. Elkonin Boxes Examples and blank templates

Question 74

Onset/Rime Games-Phonological Awareness

Answer 74

Similar to teaching beginning readers about rhyme, teaching children about onset and rime helps them recognize common chunks within words. This can help students decode new words when reading and spell words when writing. The "onset" is the initial phonological unit of any word (e.g. c in cat) and the term "rime" refers to the string of letters that follow, usually a vowel and final consonants (e.g. at in cat). Not all words have onsets.

Question 75

Why teach about onset and rimes?

Answer 75

They help children learn about word families, which can lay the foundation for future spelling strategies Teaching children to attend to onset and rime will have a positive effect on their literacy skills Learning these components of phonological awareness is strongly predictive of reading and spelling acquisition

Question 76

Rhyming Games-Phonological Awareness

Answer 76

Rhyme is found in poetry, songs, and many children's books and games. Most children also love to sing and recite nursery rhymes. Words that can be grouped together by a common sound, for example the "-at" family — cat, hat, and sat — can be used to teach children about similar spellings. Children can use these rhyme families when learning to read and spell.

Question 77

Why teach about rhyming?

Answer 77

Developing a child's phonological awareness is an important part of developing a reader. Young children's ability to identify rhyme units is an important component of phonological awareness. Research shows that students benefit from direct instruction on rhyme recognition paired with fun activities that target this skill.

Question 78

Examples of rhyming activities-

Answer 78

Rhyme book #1 Students can draw pictures of objects that rhyme or cut out rhyming pictures found in magazines and place them in their books. Rhyme book #2 The following link provides teachers with printable pages for creating a rhyme book for each student. Students can cut out each page and teachers can help staple the pages together at the left. Teachers can include a more advanced task with this activity by asking students to write the rhyming words in the spaces provided. Printable rhyming book pages > Rhyme matching This website includes many examples of rhyme matching activities. Teachers can download and print worksheets for students to match the rhyming pictures. There are also more advanced Venn diagram printouts for students to supply the rhyming words. Rhyme matching activities > File folder rhyming games Teachers can create file folder games and ask students to find the rhymes for words. The example below includes connecting the two words with yarn. File folder rhyming games > Space-themed rhymes The file folder game found on the link below helps students match rhyming words. Teachers can download and print the game, including all materials and instructions. Space-themed rhyming game > Word family chart This Reading Rockets article describes several ideas for rhyme games and classroom activities. One example provided is how to create a word family chart from various rhyming words. Teachers can use rhyming words from a story or nursery rhyme to pull words for the chart. How Now Brown Cow: Phoneme Awareness Activities >

Question 79

Syllable Games-Phonological Awareness

Answer 79

As students progress in their literacy understanding, they move from reading and writing single syllable words (often with consonant-vowel-consonant constructions) to reading and writing multisyllabic words. Instruction focused on teaching students about syllables often focuses on teaching different types of syllables (open and closed) and what occurs when syllables join together within a word.

Question 80

Why teach about syllables?

Answer 80

Dividing words into parts, or "chunks" helps speed the process of decoding. Knowing the rules for syllable division can students read words more accurately and fluently. It can also help students learn to spell words correctly.

Question 81

Activities for teaching syllables-

Answer 81

Examples Marker activity This activity, from our article How Now Brown Cow: Phoneme Awareness Activities is an example of how to teach students to use a marker (i.e., token) to count syllables. The marker activity often used for word counting can be adapted for use in counting syllables. Teachers can provide each child with tokens and two or three horizontally connected boxes drawn on a sheet of paper. The children place a token in each box from left to right as they hear each syllable in a word. Multisyllabic manipulation This example includes several activities and a chart of multisyllabic words. One specific activity from this page is the Multisyllabic Words Manipulation Game. Teachers can divide words from reading selections into syllables, write each syllable on a note card and display the syllables in jumbled order. Have students arrange the syllables to form the words. See example > (92K PDF)* Clapping games Associating syllables with a beat can help students to better learn the concept of syllables within words. The activities found on this website provide teachers with some suggestions for using clapping games to help students understand about dividing words into syllables. See example > Using mirrors The following link includes information on introductory activities such as using mirrors for teaching students about syllables. Information is also provided about the different syllable spelling patterns. See example > Jumping syllables This activity teaches student to separate words into syllables. Students move syllables around to create new "silly" words which gives them practice manipulating different sounds. See example > (77KB PDF)* If you feel you need additional support to increase your own understanding of syllables, syllable types, and the division of syllables, visit these lessons from the Reading Teachers Network.

Question 82

Choral Reading

Answer 82

Choral reading is reading aloud in unison with a whole class or group of students. Choral reading helps build students' fluency, self-confidence, and motivation. Because students are reading aloud together, students who may ordinarily feel self-conscious or nervous about reading aloud have built-in support.

Question 83

Why use choral reading?

Answer 83

It can provide less skilled readers the opportunity to practice and receive support before being required to read on their own. It provides a model for fluent reading as students listen. It helps improve the ability to read sight words.

Question 84

How to use choral reading

Answer 84

Choose a book or passage that works well for reading aloud as a group: patterned or predictable (for beginning readers) not too long; and is at the independent reading level of most students Provide each student a copy of the text so they may follow along. (Note: You may wish to use an overhead projector or place students at a computer monitor with the text on the screen) Read the passage or story aloud and model fluent reading for the students. Ask the students to use a marker or finger to follow along with the text as they read. Reread the passage and have all students in the group read the story or passage aloud in unison.

Question 85

Paired (or Partner) Reading

Answer 85

Paired reading is a research-based fluency strategy used with readers who lack fluency. In this strategy, students read aloud to each other. When using partners, more fluent readers can be paired with less fluent readers, or children who read at the same level can be paired to reread a story they have already read. Paired reading can be used with any book, taking turns reading by sentence, paragraph, page or chapter.

Question 86

Why use paired reading?

Answer 86

It helps students work together. | It encourages cooperation and supports peer-assisted learning.

Question 87

How to use paired reading

Answer 87

How to pair students Pair students either by same reading ability or by high level readers with low level readers. Use the following steps to pair high-level readers with low-level readers: List the students in order from highest to lowest according to reading ability Divide the list in half Place the top student in the first list with the top student in the second list Continue until all students have been partnered Be sensitive to pairings of students with special needs, including learning or emotional needs. Adjust pairings as necessary The reader from the first list should read first while the reader from the second list listens and follows along The second reader should pick up where the first reader stops. If additional practice is needed, the second reader can reread what the first reader read Encourage pairs to ask each other about what was read. "What was your page about? What was your favorite part?" Implementing the strategy Introduce the students to the Paired Reading strategy. This includes: Establishing a routine for students to adopt so that they know the step-by-step requirements for engaging in paired reading (i.e. Will they read out loud, simultaneously? Will they take turns with each person reading a paragraph? a page? Or will one person read while the other person listens?). Teaching students an error-correction procedure to use when supporting each other's reading (i.e. re-reading misread words; signals for difficulty). Modeling the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the strategy. Ask students to begin reading in pairs and adjust reading speed if reading simultaneously so they stay together. Have students offer feedback and praise frequently for correct reading. Monitor and support students as they work.

Question 88

Reader's Theater

Answer 88

Reader's Theater is a strategy for developing reading fluency. It involves children in oral reading through reading parts in scripts. In using this strategy, students do not need to memorize their part; they need only to reread it several times, thus developing their fluency skills. The best Reader's Theater scripts include lots of dialogue.

Question 89

Why use Reader's Theater?

Answer 89

It promotes fluency. It helps readers learn to read aloud with expression. It helps build reading confidence.

Question 90

How to use Reader's Theater

Answer 90

Choose a story that can be divided into parts (such as characters) Note: Click here for tips on choosing appropriate scripts Assign reading parts to each child. Ask students to read their scripts orally for practice. Have students read assigned parts to the audience.

Question 91

Shared Reading

Answer 91

Shared Reading is an interactive reading experience that occurs when students join in or share the reading of a book or other text while guided and supported by a teacher. The teacher explicitly models the skills of proficient readers, including reading with fluency and expression. The shared reading model often uses oversized books (referred to as big books) with enlarged print and illustrations.

Question 92

Why use Shared Reading?

Answer 92

It provides struggling readers with necessary support. Shared reading of predictable text can build sight word knowledge and reading fluency Allows students to enjoy materials that they may not be able to read on their own. Ensures that all students feel successful by providing support to the entire group.

Question 93

How to use shared reading

Answer 93

Introduce the story by discussing the title, cover, and author/illustrator. Ask the students to make predictions regarding what they think the story might be about. Read the story aloud to the students using appropriate inflection and tone. Pause and ask the students to make predictions. Ask brief questions to determine students' comprehension level. Conclude the reading by reserving time for reactions and comments. Ask questions about the story and relate the story to the students' similar experiences. Ask the children to retell the story in their own words. Re-read the story and/or allow time for independent reading. Conduct follow-up activities such as making crafts related to the story.

Question 94

Tape Assisted Reading

Answer 94

Tape assisted reading is an individual or group reading activity where students read along in their books as they hear a fluent reader read the book on an audiotape. As confidence and reading skills develop, students read the same passage or text without the assistance of the tape.

Question 95

Why use taped assisted reading?

Answer 95

It helps to build fluency skills including proper phrasing and expression. It helps students improve sight word recognition. It helps build comprehension. It allows students to hear the tone and pace of a skillful reader. It's a flexible strategy that can be used across content areas.

Question 96

How to use tape assisted reading

Answer 96

Choose a reading passage and audio recording of the reading that is slightly above students' independent reading levels. Ask students to listen to the tape or (downloaded audio) while following along on the paper copy of the passage. Have students read out loud along out loud with the audio recording. Ask students to read the passage without the audio. Have students read and re-read along with the audio until they feel comfortable reading the text unassisted. Notes Observe students as they are listening and reading to ensure that they're able to follow along accurately. If limited tape recorders are available, rotate students through using a timer or as one of your stations during center time.

Question 97

Timed Repeated Readings

Answer 97

Timed repeated readings are an instructional practice for monitoring students' fluency development. Repeated readings, under timed conditions, of familiar instructional level text can increase students' reading speed which can improve comprehension.

Question 98

Why use timed repeated readings?

Answer 98

It improves reading rate, one aspect of fluency. It improves reading accuracy, a second aspect of fluency, and leads to improved comprehension. Timed repeated readings should be done using books or passages the student has read before that are at an independent reading level (i.e. books the student can read with 95% accuracy or above). Most timed repeated reading sessions should include 3-4 re-readings of the same text.

Question 99

How to use timed repeated readings

Answer 99

You will need: Two copies of the assessment passage — one for the student and one for the teacher Stopwatch or clock Pencil Carefully select passage to be used, and determine the type of assessment information you want to gather: One minute reading. The student reads for 1 minute. The teacher or partner counts the number of words read correctly in one minute (WCPM). This score is as valid as calculating perfect correct or accuracy on longer readings. Provide some practice time with non-assessment reading material before beginning the 1 minute timed reading. Timed repeated readings. The student reads the same passage for 1 minute multiple times (3-5). The teacher or partner counts how words the student read in 1 minute. The number of words read results can be graphed using a bar graph. Words correct per minute (WCPM). Choose a passage. Time the student when s/he reads the passage. See timed repeated oral reading activities in action video icon > When to use: Before reading During reading After reading How to use: Individually With small groups Whole class setting Examples A student read a story with 148 words in 2 minutes, 55 seconds. She made 8 errors. To determine WCPM: Count the total number of words. Example: 148 Count the number of mistakes. Example: 18 Take the number of words minus the number of mistakes = number of words read correctly. Example: 148-18 = 130 Calculate percent accuracy: number of words read correctly divided by total number of words. Example: 130/148 = 87% Convert the time it took to read the passage to seconds. Example: 2 minutes, 55 seconds = 175 seconds Convert the number of seconds to a decimal by dividing the number of seconds by 60. This is the total reading time. Example: 175 / 60 = 2.91 Divide the number of words read correctly by the total reading time in decimal form. Example: 130 / 2.91 = 45 WCPM Use these fluency norms from Hasbrouck and Tindal (8K PDF)* to determine the child's approximate percentile for oral reading fluency.

Question 100

Concept of Word Games

Answer 100

Concept of word refers to the ability of a reader to match spoken words to written words while reading. Students with a concept of word understand that each word is separate, and that words are separated by a space within each sentence. Using strategies to build concept of word in the classroom can also strengthen a child's developing awareness of the individual sounds within words.

Question 101

Why teach concept of word?

Answer 101

Research suggests that only when a student can point to individual words accurately within a line of text will they be able to learn new words while reading. As students are learning about concept of word they are building upon the foundations in the developmental progression of reading. This progression also includes learning about concepts of print (also referred to as print awareness). Not to be confused with concept of word, concept of print includes an understanding that: print carries meaning, that books contain letters, words, sentences, and spaces. It also includes understanding what books are used for, and that books have parts such as a front cover, back cover and a spine.

Question 102

Descriptive Writing

Answer 102

The primary purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a person, place or thing in such a way that a picture is formed in the reader's mind. Capturing an event through descriptive writing involves paying close attention to the details by using all of your five senses. Teaching students to write more descriptively will improve their writing by making it more interesting and engaging to read.

Question 103

Why teach descriptive writing?

Answer 103

It will help your students' writing be more interesting and full of details It encourages students to use new vocabulary words It can help students clarify their understanding of new subject matter material

Question 104

How to teach descriptive writing

Answer 104

There's no one way to teach descriptive writing. That said, teachers can: Develop descriptive writing skill through modeling and the sharing of quality literature full of descriptive writing. Include lessons such as the ones listed below throughout the year. Call students' attention to interesting, descriptive word choices in classroom writing. Descriptive writing shares the following characteristics: Good descriptive writing includes many vivid sensory details that paint a picture and appeals to all of the reader's senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste when appropriate. Descriptive writing may also paint pictures of the feelings the person, place or thing invokes in the writer. Good descriptive writing often makes use of figurative language such as analogies, similes and metaphors to help paint the picture in the reader's mind. Good descriptive writing uses precise language. General adjectives, nouns, and passive verbs do not have a place in good descriptive writing. Use specific adjectives and nouns and strong action verbs to give life to the picture you are painting in the reader's mind. Good descriptive writing is organized. Some ways to organize descriptive writing include: chronological (time), spatial (location), and order of importance. When describing a person, you might begin with a physical description, followed by how that person thinks, feels and acts. Language Arts The Show-Me Sentences lesson plan from Read Write Think was created for students in grades 6-12. However, elementary teachers can modify the Show-Me sentences to make them interesting for younger students. The Writing Fix provides a lesson plan for using Roald Dahl's The Twits as a mentor text to teach descriptive writing. Project GRAD offers a method for using photographs to encourage descriptive writing. Initially created for older students, many of the same prompts could be used for younger students as well. Writer's Workshop connects great children's literature with children's own writing experiences. In this video clip from our Launching Young Readers PBS series, Lynn Reichle's second graders practice their use of descriptive writing.

Question 105

Dictation

Answer 105

Dictation is the process of writing down what someone else has said. With young children, dictation offers a way for a parent or a teacher to record a child's thoughts or ideas when the writing demands surpass writing skills. Dictation provides a chance for an adult to model many writing behaviors including handwriting, matching sounds-to-letters to spell words, and sentence formation.

Question 106

Why use dictation?

Answer 106

It allows students to watch as an adult writes using many conventions of writing, such as letter formation, punctuation, spacing between words, and more. Teachers can model listening to a sound and writing the associated letter. It allows us to model that speech can be written down and read back.

Question 107

Dictation activity examples

Answer 107

xamples Language Arts Ask students to draw a picture of something of their choice; their family, a house, their pet, or another concept that the child is familiar with. Then ask the child to say a sentence or two about the picture, for example "Our dog is brown." Write the child's words on the bottom of her picture and read them back to her. As you write, model a clear sound to letter match. "We read a book about the moon. I'm going to write the word mmmmmmoon. What sound is at the beginning of moon? What letter makes that sound?" Encourage the child to read the sentence too. ``` Have students tell a group story. Sometimes called Language Experience Charts, group stories benefit from a shared class experience like a field trip or school assembly. Start by brainstorming a title. Write down the children's ideas. If necessary, prompt a sequence "What happened first? Then what did we do?" and so on. Record the sentences as the children dictate them. As you write, model a clear sound to letter match. "We read a book about the moon. I'm going to write the word mmmmmmoon. What sound is at the beginning of moon? What letter makes that sound?" When the story is finished, read the story aloud with the children. Read it several times, then ask if anyone would like to read it by himself. Give everyone a chance to read. Later, copy the story on chart paper and display it in the classroom. Science ``` Children learn to describe and care for plants and animals, recording their findings in science journals through pictures, dictation, or kindergarten-style writing. Social Studies Teachers can follow up with a read aloud by asking students to summarize a read aloud on a social studies topic. Teachers can write the student dictations on chart paper. Summaries can be read by the whole class.

Question 108

Framed Paragraphs | Why use framed paragraphs

Answer 108

It provides a framework for writing strong paragraphs The frame guides students by providing the transitional phrases for sentences It can incorporate various sentence types: long and short, simple and complex.

Question 109

How to use framed paragraphs

Answer 109

Discuss how to write a framed paragraph by using: A topic sentence — a general statement or opinion Three to five examples that develop the topic or opinion Transitions when needed A summary sentence at the end Provide students with a blank frame. Ask students fill in the missing portions of the frame to write a complete paragraph. Encourage students to incorporate a variety of sentences: long and short, simple and complex.

Question 110

Paragraph Hamburger

Answer 110

The "paragraph hamburger" is a writing organizer that visually outlines the key components of a paragraph. Topic sentence, detail sentences, and a closing sentence are the main elements of a good paragraph, and each one forms a different "piece" of the hamburger.

Question 111

Why use a paragraph hamburger organizer?

Answer 111

t helps students organize their ideas into a cohesive paragraph. It helps show the organization or structure of concepts/idea. It demonstrates in a concrete way how information is related.

Question 112

How to use paragraph hamburger

Answer 112

Discuss the three main components of a paragraph, or story. The introduction (top bun) The internal or supporting information (the filling) The conclusion (bottom bun) Ask students to write a topic sentence that clearly indicates what the whole paragraph is going to be about. Have students compose several supporting sentences that give more information about the topic. Instruct students on ways to write a concluding sentence that restates the topic sentence.

Question 113

Persuasive Writing

Answer 113

Persuasive writing is a form of nonfiction writing that encourages careful word choice, the development of logical arguments, and a cohesive summary. Young children can be guided through a series of simple steps in an effort to develop their persuasive writing skills.

Question 114

Why teach persuasive writing?

Answer 114

As children mature as writers, it's important to give them the opportunity to write using a variety of formats. Persuasive writing helps students formulate specific reasons for their opinions, and provides an opportunity to research facts related to their opinions. As students develop an understanding of how writing can influence or change another's thoughts or actions, they can begin to understand the persuasive nature of the marketing they are exposed to through television, the Internet, and other media.

Question 115

How to teach persuasive writing

Answer 115

Have students listen to or read examples of persuasive writing. Together, listen and look for words, phrases and techniques that helped the writer persuade the listener. Brainstorm something that is important to an individual child or the group. Is it extra recess? Another chapter of the read aloud? The potential closing of a library? The more authentic the issue, the more passionately your students will write. Once the important privilege is chosen, have the child (or class) start to list reasons why they should be allowed this privilege. "Just because," and "because I like it" should not be considered valid reasons. Students can work together to generate at least three good reasons to support an argument. This list of persuasive words (44K PDF)* and phrases from the site Teaching Ideas may help get students started. Have students do some research to gather facts or examples that support their reasons. Have students summarize their position.

Question 116

RAFT

Answer 116

RAFT is a writing strategy that helps students understand their role as a writer, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the topic they'll be writing about. By using this strategy, teachers encourage students to write creatively, to consider a topic from a different perspective, and to gain practice writing for different audiences.

Question 117

Why use RAFT?

Answer 117

It includes writing from different viewpoints. It helps students learn important writing skills such as audience, main idea, and organization. It teaches students to think creatively about writing by responding to the following prompts: Role of the Writer: Who or what are you as the writer? A pilgrim? A soldier? The President? Audience: To whom are you writing? A friend? Your teacher? Readers of a newspaper? Format: In what format are you writing? A letter? A poem? A speech? Topic and strong verb: What are you writing about? Why? What's the subject or the point? It can be used across various content areas

Question 118

How to use RAFT

Answer 118

``` Display a completed RAFT example on the overhead. Describe each of these using simple examples: role, audience, format, and topic. (It may be helpful to write the elements on chart paper or a bulletin board for future reference). Model how to write responses to the prompts, and discuss the key elements as a class. Teachers should keep this as simple and concise as possible for younger students. Have students practice responding to prompts individually, or in small groups. At first, it may be best to have all students react to the same prompt so the class can learn from varied responses. ```

Question 119

Revision

Answer 119

Revising is a way to learn about the craft of writing. Phyllis Whitney famously wrote, "Good stories are not written. They are rewritten." Learning to revise teaches students about the characteristics of good writing, which will carry over into their future writing. Revision skills complement reading skills; revision requires that writers distance themselves from the writing and critically evaluate a text.

Question 120

Why teach revising?

Answer 120

It's an important part of the writing process. Revising gives students an opportunity to reflect on what they've written. Revising is a way to learn about the craft of writing. Revision is closely tied to critical reading; in order to revise a piece conceptually, students must be able to reflect on whether their message matches their writing goal.

Question 121

How to teach revising

Answer 121

Research on revision and the quality of writing shows that strategy instruction is very powerful. When using strategy instruction, teachers should do the following: Explain the revising process explicitly: provide specific, meaningful goals for the revision and/or clearly identify the audience. One way to make the criteria very specific is to focus on genre. For example, when teaching narratives, develop a simple checklist that aligns with good narrative writing. For example, ask students "Are all the story elements included? Are the characters clearly described? Does your story show how characters feel?" Another approach focuses not on genre, but rather overall qualities such as clarity and detail. For example, "Is there anything that is difficult to understand?" "What vocabulary words could you add to make the story more interesting?" Model the strategy with think-alouds. This can be achieved by displaying one writing sample on a chart or ELMO, and using that sample to model and discuss how to revise the paper in a way that would improve it. Provide guided practice with feedback. This can be done through peer editing and through meaningful teacher–student dialogue. These collaborative efforts reinforce the understanding that writing is a social process in which a message is created for an audience. Gradually work toward independent mastery by students. Peer editing is a very successful way to help students develop revision skills. This is particularly true when the peer groups have explicit goals for the revision. For example, find one place in the writing where the message is unclear, or one place where a different vocabulary word could be used. Many teachers use checklists and mnemonic devices to help students revise their writing. Here are a few examples: Writing Checklists by Grade Level MCAS Mentor Write Away COPS Rubric It's important to help students focus on more than sentence-level revisions. The 6 + 1 Trait writing program encourages a bigger-picture revision process through attention to ideas, organization, voice, word choice, and more. Their revision checklist includes items such as: The topic is narrow and manageable. The details support the idea. The order of details makes sense. The writing has an interesting beginning and ending. Although it's rarely considered this way, revisions include any changes a writer makes to a draft, including decisions made both before the writing begins and as drafting is taking place. Strategies that engage students before writing begins — for example RAFT and the story sequence strategy — can help students develop a strong first draft. These steps for revision can be used across content areas. The types of writing that could take place include writing the steps to a word problem (math), reporting results from an experiment (science), and summarizing an important historical event or figure (social studies).

Question 122

Sentence Combining

Answer 122

Combining sentences encourages a writer to take two or more short, choppy sentences and combine them into one effective sentence. By learning this skill, students enhance their writing style. Sentence combining skill is something that will develop over several short practice sessions and should be considered as one component of an overall writing program.

Question 123

Why use sentence combining?

Answer 123

It teaches students to use a variety of sentences in their writing. It helps improve the overall quality of the writing by increasing the amount and quality of the revision The process encourages interesting word choices and transition words.

Question 124

How to use sentence combining

Answer 124

Teachers should guide students through the sentence combining process. When introducing the skill, begin by asking students to combine two sentences. Move to using three or more sentences once students have more experience. As students develop skill working with sentences provided by the teacher, they can learn to combine sentences within their own writing. Sadler (2005) provides a possible sequence of sentence-combining exercises. A few of the steps are listed here. Inserting adjectives and adverbs Example: The girl drank lemonade. The girl was thirsty. The thirsty girl drank lemonade. Producing compound subjects and objects Example: The book was good. The movie was good. The book and the movie were good. Producing compound sentences using conjunctions (for example: and, but) Example: The weather was perfect. The girls were playing soccer. The weather was perfect, and the girls were playing soccer. After several modeled and shared lessons, encourage students to combine sentences from their own writing. Take a minute or two at the end of your writer's workshop to ask students to share any sentences they combined. Discuss ways the revision improved the quality of the writing.

Question 125

Transition Words

Answer 125

Teaching students to use transition words helps them improve their writing. Transition words help stories flow more smoothly, by providing logical organization and improving the connections between thoughts.

Question 126

Why teach transition words?

Answer 126

They provide coherence to a story They can help writers bridge the gap between ideas They provide a signal to the reader or listener about what is coming next in the writing.

Question 127

Examples of teaching transition words.

Answer 127

Some teachers find it useful to teach transition words by purpose: words used to help sequence ideas or transition between sentences or paragraphs, words that can be used to show time, those that help writers wrap up or summarize a story, and others. Include our handy transition word guide (1.2MB PDF)* in your students' writing folders so they have a reference right there as they write their drafts. A helpful way to begin teaching students about transition words: Call attention to ways transition words are used within your classroom read aloud or the book being used for reading groups. Find a particular paragraph that sequences something, an opening that catches everyone's attention, or words that mark the ending of a chapter or idea. Use these models as a way to discuss students' own writing. Encourage students to review something they've written and look for evidence of transition words. Ask students to find places within their own writing where transition words will clarify what they're trying to say or help the piece by moving the action along. Using editing marks, have students revise their writing using just the right transition words. This Teacher's Guide from The Writing Fix provides teacher instructions and lesson resources using a mentor text, Centerburg Tales, by Robert McCloskey. The guide includes writing samples (24K PDF)* from two third-grade writers as they worked to use transition words to improve the flow of their writing. Another mentor text suggestion from The Writing Fix uses the text Miss Alaineus and involves students writing a script for an imaginative Vocabulary Fashion Show.

Question 128

Writing Conferences

Answer 128

Research on the writing process suggests that writers learn the most about writing when they share and reflect on their writing. In classrooms, this is most commonly done through writing conferences as part of the revision stage. Whether they occur with pairs, with small groups, or with the teacher, the social benefits of sharing writing improves writing.

Question 129

Why conduct writing conferences?

Answer 129

They involve a non-threatening audience of peers Peers or teacher can provide immediate feedback or can immediately ask for clarifications They can promote positive attitudes about writing and increased motivation to revise Students experience a wide range of writing abilities and topics

Question 130

Examples of how to conduct writing conferences.

Answer 130

There are many, many ways to conduct writing conferences. Teachers will have the most success if they model conference behaviors with the whole class. Class discussions can focus on what sorts of comments and actions are useful and constructive, and what sorts of behaviors are less helpful to the author sharing his or her work. Some teachers decide to create very focused conferences, for example encouraging kids to only react to a piece of writing. Other conferences focus only on editing a piece of writing. It may be difficult for young kids to parse apart the differences. Many conferences with young kids involve both reaction and editing. ``` Donald Graves (1982) identified six characteristics of successful writing conferences. Conferences should: (1) have a predictable structure; (2) focus on a few points; (3) demonstrate solutions to students' problems; (4) permit role reversals; (5) encourage use of a vocabulary appropriate for writing; and (6) stimulate pleasure in writing. Most teachers use some variant of these characteristics in their classroom. Reading and Writing Conferences: A Blended Approach ``` Here's a resource on Reading and Writing Conferences: A Blended Approach that includes a short video on conferences as well as the organization, assessment, and communication with parents about writing. Go to website > Beginning Procedures for Writing Conferences Wondering how to get started with writing, and writing conferences? Two Writing Teachers offer a short video on Beginning Procedures that you may find useful. Go to website > Building a Community of Writers This online workshop on Building a Community of Writers guides users through nurturing a classroom of writers, how to establish shared values of good writing, and encourages teachers to become a member of the writing community by sharing their own. Go to website >

Question 131

List-Group-Label-vocabulary strategy

Answer 131

List-group-label is a form of semantic mapping. The strategy encourages students to improve their vocabulary and categorization skills and learn to organize concepts. Categorizing listed words, through grouping and labeling, helps students organize new concepts in relation to previously learned concepts. Watch classroom video of list-group-label in action.

Question 132

Why use list-group-label?

Answer 132

It helps students organize their understanding of specific vocabulary and concepts. It builds on students' prior knowledge about a topic. It actively engages students in learning new vocabulary and content by activating their critical thinking skills. It teaches categorizing and labeling skills.

Question 133

How to use list-group-label

Answer 133

Select a main concept in a reading selection. List: Have students brainstorm all the words they think relate to the topic. Visually display student responses. At this point do not critique student responses. Some words may not reflect the main concept, but hopefully students will realize this as they begin grouping the words in the next step. Group: Divide your class into small groups. Each group will work to cluster the class list of words into subcategories. As groups of words emerge, challenge your students to explain their reasoning for placing words together or discarding them. Label: Invite students to suggest a title or label for the groups of words they have formed. These labels should relate to their reasoning for the grouping.

Question 134

Possible Sentences

Answer 134

Possible sentences is a pre-reading vocabulary strategy that activates students' prior knowledge about content area vocabulary and concepts. Before reading, students are provided a short list of vocabulary words from their reading. Students create, based on their prediction of what the reading will be about, a meaningful sentence for each vocabulary word or concept. After reading, students check to see if their "possible sentences" were accurate or need revising.

Question 135

Why use possible sentences?

Answer 135

It activates students' prior knowledge about content area vocabulary and concepts, and can improve their reading comprehension. It sparks students' curiosity about their reading. It teaches students to guess how words may be used in the text and create meaningful sentences.

Question 136

How to use possible sentences

Answer 136

Choose and display the vocabulary words. Ask students to define the words and pair related words together. Ask students to write sentences using their word pairs. Remind students that their sentences should be ones they expect to see in the text as they read. Have students read the text and compare their possible sentences with the actual sentences within the text. If your students' possible sentences are inaccurate, ask them to rewrite their sentences to be accurate.

Question 137

Semantic Feature Analysis

Answer 137

The semantic feature analysis strategy uses a grid to help kids explore how sets of things are related to one another. By completing and analyzing the grid, students are able to see connections, make predictions and master important concepts. This strategy enhances comprehension and vocabulary skills.

Question 138

Why use semantic feature analysis?

Answer 138

It illustrates how words are both similar and different and emphasizes the uniqueness of each word. It draws on students' prior knowledge and uses discussion to elicit information about word meanings.

Question 139

How to use semantic feature analysis

Answer 139

Select a category or topic for the semantic feature analysis. Provide students with key vocabulary words and important features related to the topic. Vocabulary words should be listed down the left hand column and the features of the topic across the top row of the chart. Have students place a "+" sign in the matrix when a vocabulary word aligns with a particular feature of the topic. If the word does not align students may put a "–" in the grid. If students are unable to determine a relationship they may leave it blank.

Question 140

Semantic Gradients

Answer 140

Semantic gradients are a way to broaden and deepen students' understanding of related words. Students consider a continuum of words by order of degree. Semantic gradients often begin with antonyms, or opposites, at each end of the continuum. This strategy helps students distinguish between shades of meaning. By enhancing their vocabulary, students can be more precise and imaginative in their writing.

Question 141

Why use semantic gradients?

Answer 141

Helps broaden and deepen students' understanding of related words Helps students distinguish between shades of meaning Enhances students' vocabulary, which can help them be more precise and imaginative in their writing

Question 142

How to use semantic gradients

Answer 142

Select a pair of polar opposite words. Generate at least five synonyms for each of the opposite words. Arrange the words in a way that makes a bridge from one opposite word to the other. Continuums can be done horizontal or vertical, in a ladder-like fashion. Have students discuss their rationale for placing certain words in certain locations. Encourage a conversation about the subtle differences among the words. OR Select a specific vocabulary word, e.g., large. Using a book you've read, a unit of study, or different writing samples, create a list of semantically similar words. The teacher can develop the list, or work collaboratively with students to generate a list. It may work best to think of your target word as being in the center of your continuum. Arrange the words in a way that illustrates an understanding of each word's meaning. Continuums can be done horizontal or vertical, in a ladder like fashion. Have students discuss their rationale for placing certain words in certain locations. Encourage a conversation about the subtle differences among the words. Download this semantic gradients handout, with examples of topics or themes and words that relate to that topic.

Question 143

Word Hunts

Answer 143

Word hunts are one way to focus spelling study on patterns within words. Typically used within word study, word hunt activities engage students with texts they have previously read. Students hunt for other words that follow the same spelling features studied during their word or picture sort. Word hunt activities help students make the connection between spelling words and reading words.

Question 144

Why use word hunts?

Answer 144

It helps to enhance students' vocabulary growth. It teaches students to focus on spelling patterns and root words. It helps students learn how words are used in different contexts.

Question 145

How to use a word hunt

Answer 145

Introduce the book or topic to be read and provide students with written material (i.e., newspapers, magazines, dictionaries, books, and/or news articles on the Internet). Model word hunting by using a portion of text copied onto chart paper, overhead transparencies, or a familiar book Ask the students to read and reread a text to find words that fit a particular pattern.

Question 146

Word Maps

Answer 146

A word map is a visual organizer that promotes vocabulary development. Using a graphic organizer, students think about terms or concepts in several ways. Most word map organizers engage students in developing a definition, synonyms, antonyms, and a picture for a given vocabulary word or concept. Enhancing students' vocabulary is important to developing their reading comprehension.

Question 147

Why use word maps?

Answer 147

They're useful for helping students develop their understanding of a word. They help students think about new terms or concepts in several ways by asking the following questions: "What is it?" "What is it like?" and "What are some examples?" They help student build upon prior knowledge and visually represent new information.

Question 148

How to use word maps

Answer 148

Introduce the vocabulary word and the map to the students. Teach them how to use the map by putting the target word in the central box. Ask students to suggest words or phrases to put in the other boxes which answer the following questions: "What is it?" "What is it like?" and "What are some examples?" Encourage students to use synonyms, antonyms, and a picture to help illustrate the new target word or concept. Model how to write a definition using the information on the word map.

Question 149

Word Walls | Why use word walls?

Answer 149

They provide a permanent model for high frequency words They help students see patterns and relationship in words, thus building phonics and spelling skills They provide reference support for children during reading and writing activities.

Question 150

How to use word walls

Answer 150

Make words accessible by putting them where every student can see them. They should be written in large black letters using a variety of background colors to distinguish easily confused words. Teachers and students should work together to determine which words should go on the word wall. Try to include words that children use most commonly in their writing. Words should be added gradually — a general guideline is five words per week. Use the word wall daily to practice words, incorporating a variety of activities such as chanting, snapping, cheering, clapping, tracing, word guessing games as well as writing them. Provide enough practice so that words are read and spelled automatically and make sure that words from the wall are always spelled correctly in the children's daily writing. New information should be added on a regular basis. Use content-area material from the curriculum rather than randomly selected words. Word walls should be referred to often so students come to understand and see their relevance. Wondering what words to put on your word wall? Your grade's scope and sequence and curriculum manuals should provide good content guidance for words. Other resources exist too, for example, Jordan School District created lists of words by grade level and content area. See word wall lists > More printable word wall lists by content area and vocabulary units can be found on the Teach-nology website. See word wall lists >

Question 151

Word wall examples

Answer 151

Examples Language Arts See how word walls can be used to help students build their concept of word skills. The Santa Rosa County School District (FL) website provides tips on word choice as well as many examples of real-life classroom word walls. See language arts word wall examples > Ask students to hunt for words in their reading and writing that fit the phonic or word study pattern being studied. These words can create a word wall that illustrates examples of the different patterns studied. Students could keep a word study notebook to record the known patterns and their new understanding about words, and can play games and activities that apply their word knowledge. ``` Follow this link for many suggestions for word wall activities, including activities to do in class and activities to do at home. See language arts word wall activities > ``` Saskatoon Public Schools has developed an extensive collection of word wall resources for teachers. More language arts word wall resources > Math Word walls in math can provide visual cues and graphic representations of content. Consider using a math word wall that has three parts: key vocabulary, "in your own words" definitions, and a variety of ways to portray a function. For example, multiplication is portrayed by the following symbols: x, *, and ( ). Number sense, concepts, and operations word wall The purpose of the mathematics word wall is to identify words and phrases that students need to understand and use so as to make good progress in mathematics. Mathematical language is crucial to children's development of thinking. If students do not have the vocabulary to talk about math concepts and skills, they cannot make progress in understanding these areas of mathematical knowledge. They need to be familiar with mathematical vocabulary and mathematical terms to understand written and spoken instructions. See math word wall resources > More ideas for word walls in math Many teachers are familiar with basic word wall strategies including the use of a flashlight (to put the light on words) and a fly swatter (to highlight words). Teachers are also familiar with tested favorites like bingo; I Have, Who Has; and Mind Reader, but they really wanted other ideas. The purpose of this post by Dr. Deborah Wahlstrom is to identify additional ways to use word walls with mathematics content. More math word wall ideas > Science Using interactive word walls in science Science is a vocabulary-intense subject that is dependent on students learning new and often times difficult vocabulary to increase comprehension and help them make connections between and among concepts. When science students are given the opportunity to interact with the vocabulary, they are more likely to remember it. Ideas for using the words on your wall are only limited by your imagination. Some examples include: ``` Students categorize and sequence from largest to smallest (cell, bacteria, yeast, tissue, ribosome, organ, organism, organ system, protozoa, virus) Variation: Students are given vocabulary words, and their classmates must arrange them in the correct order and justify the placement. Students remove words from the wall and make connecting statements about the words. The class can then create a summarizing statemen ```

Question 152

Phonological and Phonemic Awareness

Answer 152

Phonological awareness is a broad skill that includes identifying and manipulating units of oral language – parts such as words, syllables, and onsets and rimes. Children who have phonological awareness are able to identify and make oral rhymes, can clap out the number of syllables in a word, and can recognize words with the same initial sounds like 'money' and 'mother.' Phonemic awareness refers to the specific ability to focus on and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Phonemes are the smallest units comprising spoken language. Phonemes combine to form syllables and words. For example, the word 'mat' has three phonemes: /m/ /a/ /t/. There are 44 phonemes in the English language, including sounds represented by letter combinations such as /th/. Acquiring phonemic awareness is important because it is the foundation for spelling and word recognition skills. Phonemic awareness is one of the best predictors of how well children will learn to read during the first two years of school instruction. Students at risk for reading difficulty often have lower levels of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness than do their classmates. The good news is that phonemic awareness and phonological awareness can be developed through a number of activities. Read below for more information.

Question 153

How to recognize phonological awareness problems

Answer 153

hildren will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how difficulties with phonological or phonemic awareness affect their reading: I don't know any words that rhyme with cat. What do you mean when you say, "What sounds are in the word brush?" I'm not sure how many syllables are in my name. I don't know what sounds are the same in bit and hit. Click here to find out what kids can do to help themselves. A parent's perspective: What I see at home Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with phonological or phonemic awareness: She has difficulty thinking of rhyming words for a simple word like cat (such as rat or bat). She doesn't show interest in language play, word games, or rhyming. Click here to find out what parents can do to help a child at home. A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with phonological or phonemic awareness: She doesn't correctly complete blending activities; for example, put together sounds /k/ /i/ /ck/ to make the word kick. He doesn't correctly complete phoneme substitution activities; for example, change the /m/ in mate to /cr/ in order to make crate. He has a hard time telling how many syllables there are in the word paper. He has difficulty with rhyming, syllabication, or spelling a new word by its sound. Click here to find out what teachers can do to help a student at school. How to help With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to cope with phonological and/or phonemic awareness problems that affect his or her reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do. What kids can do to help themselves Be willing to play word and sounds games with parents or teachers. Be patient with learning new information related to words and sounds. Giving the ears a workout is difficult! Practice hearing the individual sounds in words. It may help to use a plastic chip as a counter for each sound you hear in a word. Be willing to practice writing. This will give you a chance to match sounds with letters. What parents can do to help at home Check with your child's teacher or principal to make sure the school's reading program teaches phonological, phonemic awareness, and phonics skills. If your child is past the ages at which phonemic awareness and phonological skills are taught class-wide (usually kindergarten to first or second grade), make sure he or she is receiving one-on-one or small group instruction in these skills. Do activities to help your child build sound skills (make sure they are short and fun; avoid allowing your child to get frustrated): Help your child think of a number of words that start with the /m/ or /ch/ sound, or other beginning sounds. Make up silly sentences with words that begin with the same sound, such as "Nobody was nice to Nancy's neighbor". Play simple rhyming or blending games with your child, such as taking turns coming up with words that rhyme (go – no) or blending simple words (/d/, /o/, /g/ = dog). Read books with rhymes. Teach your child rhymes, short poems, and songs. Practice the alphabet by pointing out letters wherever you see them and by reading alphabet books. Consider using computer software that focuses on developing phonological and phonemic awareness skills. Many of these programs use colorful graphics and animation that keep young children engaged and motivated. What teachers can do to help at school Learn all about phonemes (there are more than 40 speech sounds that may not be obvious to fluent readers and speakers). Make sure the school's reading program and other materials include skill-building in phonemes, especially in kindergarten and first grade (these skills do not come naturally, but must be taught). If children are past the age at which phonemic awareness and phonological skill-building are addressed (typically kindergarten through first or second grade), attend to these skills one-on-one or in a small group. Ask your school's reading specialist for help finding a research-based supplemental or intervention program for students in need. Identify the precise phoneme awareness task on which you wish to focus and select developmentally appropriate activities for engaging children in the task. Activities should be fun and exciting – play with sounds, don't drill them. Make sure your school's reading program and other materials include systematic instruction in phonics. Consider teaching phonological and phonemic skills in small groups since students will likely be at different levels of expertise. Remember that some students may need more reinforcement or instruction if they are past the grades at which phonics is addressed by a reading program (first through third grade).

Question 154

Word Decoding and Phonics

Answer 154

Decoding is the ability to apply your knowledge of letter-sound relationships, including knowledge of letter patterns, to correctly pronounce written words. Understanding these relationships gives children the ability to recognize familiar words quickly and to figure out words they haven't seen before. Although children may sometimes figure out some of these relationships on their own, most children benefit from explicit instruction in this area. Phonics is one approach to reading instruction that teaches students the principles of letter-sound relationships, how to sound out words, and exceptions to the principles.

Question 155

Problem with word decoding and phonics-what does it look like?

Answer 155

Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how word decoding and phonics difficulties affect their reading: I just seem to get stuck when I try to read a lot of the words in this chapter. Figuring out the words takes so much of my energy, I can't even think about what it means. I don't know how to sound out these words. I know my letters and sounds, but I just can't read words on a page. Click here to find out what kids can do to help themselves. A parent's perspective: What I see at home Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with word decoding and phonics: She often gets stuck on words when reading. I end up telling her many of the words. His reading is very slow because he spends so much time figuring out words. She's not able to understand much about what she's read because she's so busy trying to sound out the words. It's as if he doesn't know how to put the information together to read words. Saying "sound it out" to her just seems to make her more frustrated. He guesses at words based on the first letter or two; it's as if he doesn't pay close attention to the print. Click here to find out what parents can do to help a child at home. A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with word decoding and phonics: She has difficulty matching sounds and letters, which can affect reading and spelling. She decodes in a very labored manner. He has trouble reading and spelling phonetically. She has a high degree of difficulty with phonics patterns and activities. He guesses at words based on the first letter or two. Even though I taught several short vowel sounds (or other letter sounds or patterns), the corresponding letters are not showing up in his writing samples. Even though I taught certain letter patterns, she isn't able to recognize them when reading words. Click here to find out what teachers can do to help a student at school. How to help With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to overcome word decoding and phonics problems that affect their reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do. What kids can do to help themselves Play with magnetic letters. See how quickly you can put them in alphabetical order while singing the alphabet song. Look at written materials around your house and at road signs to see if you can spot familiar words and letter patterns. Write notes, e-mails, and letters to your friends and family. Represent each sound you hear as you write. When you're trying to sound out a word, pay close attention to the print. Try to look at all the letters in the word, not just the first one or two. What parents can do to help at home For a younger reader, help your child learn the letters and sounds of the alphabet. Occasionally point to letters and ask your child to name them. Help your child make connections between what he or she might see on a sign or in the newspaper and the letter and sound work he or she is doing in school. Encourage your child to write and spell notes, e-mails, and letters using what he knows about sounds and letters. Talk with your child about the "irregular" words that she'll often see in what she's reading. These are the words that don't follow the usual letter-sound rules. These words include said, are, and was. Students must learn to recognize them "at sight." Consider using computer software that focuses on developing phonics and emergent literacy skills. Some software programs are designed to support children in their writing efforts. For example, some programs encourage kids to construct sentences and then cartoon characters will act out the completed sentence. Other software programs provide practice with long and short vowel sounds and creating compound words. What teachers can do to help at school Have students sort pictures and objects by the sound you're teaching. At each stage, have children say the letter sound over and over again. Teach phonics in a systematic and explicit way. If your curriculum materials are not systematic and explicit, talk with your principal or reading specialist. Be sure to begin the systematic and explicit phonics instruction early; first grade would be best. Help students understand the purpose of phonics by engaging them in reading and writing activities that requires them to apply the phonics information you've taught them. Use manipulatives to help teach letter-sound relationships. These can include counters, sound boxes, and magnetic letters. Provide more of your instruction to students who you've divided into need-based groups.

Question 156

Vocabulary

Answer 156

Vocabulary refers to the words we must understand to communicate effectively. Educators often consider four types of vocabulary: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we hear. Speaking vocabulary consists of the words we use when we speak. Reading vocabulary refers to the words we need to know to understand what we read. Writing vocabulary consists of the words we use in writing. Vocabulary plays a fundamental role in the reading process, and contributes greatly to a reader's comprehension. A reader cannot understand a text without knowing what most of the words mean. Students learn the meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language. Other words are learned through carefully designed instruction.

Question 157

How to recognize students problem with vocabulary.

Answer 157

Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how their vocabulary difficulties affect their reading: I heard my friend tell what happened in the movie but I didn't really understand what he said about it. I feel like I just use the same words over and over again in my writing. I don't like to read on my own because I don't understand lots of the words in the book. Click here to find out what kids can do to help themselves. A parent's perspective: What I see at home Here are some clues for parents that a child may have difficulties as a result of his or her vocabulary: She's unable to tell about her day in a way that makes sense. She misuses common words. He doesn't link words from a book to similar words from another book or from real life. He's often not able to find the right word to describe something. Click here to find out what parents can do to help a child at home. A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have difficulties as a result of his or her vocabulary: She has questions about a lot of word meanings in a grade appropriate text. He seems to have a weak vocabulary. She is not able to make connections among words in various texts. He's often not able to find the right word to describe something. Click here to find out what teachers can do to help a student at school.

Question 158

Fluency

Answer 158

Fluency is defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. In order to understand what they read, children must be able to read fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently. When reading aloud, fluent readers read in phrases and add intonation appropriately. Their reading is smooth and has expression. Children who do not read with fluency sound choppy and awkward. Those students may have difficulty with decoding skills or they may just need more practice with speed and smoothness in reading. Fluency is also important for motivation; children who find reading laborious tend not to want read! As readers head into upper elementary grades, fluency becomes increasingly important. The volume of reading required in the upper elementary years escalates dramatically. Students whose reading is slow or labored will have trouble meeting the reading demands of their grade level.

Question 159

What does a problem with fluency look like?

Answer 159

Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how fluency difficulties in particular affect their reading: I just seem to get stuck when I try to read a lot of the words in this chapter. It takes me so long to read something. Reading through this book takes so much of my energy, I can't even think about what it means. Click here to find out what kids can do to help themselves. A parent's perspective: What I see at home Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with fluency: He knows how to read words but seems to take a long time to read a short book or passage silently. She reads a book with no expression. He stumbles a lot and loses his place when reading something aloud. She reads aloud very slowly. She moves her mouth when reading silently (subvocalizing). Click here to find out what parents can do to help a child at home. A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with fluency: Her results on words-correct-per-minute assessments are below grade level or targeted benchmark. She has difficulty and grows frustrated when reading aloud, either because of speed or accuracy. He does not read aloud with expression; that is, he does not change his tone where appropriate. She does not "chunk" words into meaningful units. When reading, he doesn't pause at meaningful breaks within sentences or paragraphs. Click here to find out what teachers can do to help a student at school. How to help With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to cope with fluency issues that affect his or her reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do. What kids can do to help themselves Track the words with your finger as a parent or teacher reads a passage aloud. Then you read it. Have a parent or teacher read aloud to you. Then, match your voice to theirs. Read your favorite books and poems over and over again. Practice getting smoother and reading with expression. What parents can do to help at home Support and encourage your child. Realize that he or she is likely frustrated by reading. Check with your child's teachers to find out their assessment of your child's word decoding skills. If your child can decode words well, help him or her build speed and accuracy by: Reading aloud and having your child match his voice to yours Having your child practice reading the same list of words, phrase, or short passages several times Reminding your child to pause between sentences and phrases Read aloud to your child to provide an example of how fluent reading sounds. Give your child books with predictable vocabulary and clear rhythmic patterns so the child can "hear" the sound of fluent reading as he or she reads the book aloud. Use books on tapes; have the child follow along in the print copy. What teachers can do to help at school Assess the student to make sure that word decoding or word recognition is not the source of the difficulty (if decoding is the source of the problem, decoding will need to be addressed in addition to reading speed and phrasing). Give the student independent level texts that he or she can practice again and again. Time the student and calculate words-correct-per-minute regularly. The student can chart his or her own improvement. Ask the student to match his or her voice to yours when reading aloud or to a tape recorded reading. Read a short passage and then have the student immediately read it back to you. Have the student practice reading a passage with a certain emotion, such as sadness or excitement, to emphasize expression and intonation. Incorporate timed repeated readings into your instructional repertoire. Plan lessons that explicitly teach students how to pay attention to clues in the text (for example, punctuation marks) that provide information about how that text should be read.

Question 160

Comprehension

Answer 160

Comprehension is the understanding and interpretation of what is read. To be able to accurately understand written material, children need to be able to (1) decode what they read; (2) make connections between what they read and what they already know; and (3) think deeply about what they have read. One big part of comprehension is having a sufficient vocabulary, or knowing the meanings of enough words. Readers who have strong comprehension are able to draw conclusions about what they read – what is important, what is a fact, what caused an event to happen, which characters are funny. Thus comprehension involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning.

Question 161

What does a problem with comprehension look like?

Answer 161

Children will usually express their frustration and difficulties in a general way, with statements like "I hate reading!" or "This is stupid!". But if they could, this is how kids might describe how comprehension difficulties in particular affect their reading: It takes me so long to read something. It's hard to follow along with everything going on. I didn't really get what that book was about. Why did that character do that? I just don't get it! I'm not sure what the most important parts of the book were. I couldn't really create an image in my head of what was going on. Click here to find out what kids can do to help themselves. A parent's perspective: What I see at home Here are some clues for parents that a child may have problems with comprehension: She's not able to summarize a passage or a book. He might be able to tell you what happened in a story, but can't explain why events went the way they did. She can't explain what a character's thoughts or feelings might have been. He doesn't link events in a book to similar events from another book or from real life. Click here to find out what parents can do to help a child at home. A teacher's perspective: What I see in the classroom Here are some clues for teachers that a student may have problems with comprehension: He seems to focus on the "wrong" aspect of a passage; for example, he concentrates so much on the details that the main idea is lost. She can tell the outcome of a story, but cannot explain why things turned out that way. He does not go behind what is presented in a book to think about what might happen next or why characters took the action they did. She brings up irrelevant information when trying to relate a passage to something in her own life. He seems to have a weak vocabulary. She cannot tell the clear, logical sequence of events in a story. He does not pick out the key facts from informational text. He cannot give you a "picture" of what's going on in a written passage; for example, what the characters look like or details of where the story takes place. Click here to find out what teachers can do to help a student at school. How to help With the help of parents and teachers, kids can learn strategies to cope with comprehension problems that affect his or her reading. Below are some tips and specific things to do. What kids can do to help themselves Use outlines, maps, and notes when you read. Make flash cards of key terms you might want to remember. Read stories or passages in short sections and make sure you know what happened before you continue reading. Ask yourself, "Does this make sense?" If it doesn't, reread the part that didn't make sense. Read with a buddy. Stop every page or so and take turns summarizing what you've read. Ask a parent or teacher to preview a book with you before you read it on your own. As you read, try to form mental pictures or images that match the story. What parents can do to help at home Hold a conversation and discuss what your child has read. Ask your child probing questions about the book and connect the events to his or her own life. For example, say "I wonder why that girl did that?" or "How do you think he felt? Why?" and "So, what lesson can we learn here?". Help your child make connections between what he or she reads and similar experiences he has felt, saw in a movie, or read in another book. Help your child monitor his or her understanding. Teach her to continually ask herself whether she understands what she's reading. Help your child go back to the text to support his or her answers. Discuss the meanings of unknown words, both those he reads and those he hears. Read material in short sections, making sure your child understands each step of the way. Discuss what your child has learned from reading informational text such as a science or social studies book. What teachers can do to help at school As students read, ask them open-ended questions such as "Why did things happen that way?" or "What is the author trying to do here?" and "Why is this somewhat confusing?". Teach students the structure of different types of reading material. For instance, narrative texts usually have a problem, a highpoint of action, and a resolution to the problem. Informational texts may describe, compare and contrast, or present a sequence of events. Discuss the meaning of words as you go through the text. Target a few words for deeper teaching, really probing what those words mean and how they can be used. Teach note-taking skills and summarizing strategies. Use graphic organizers that help students break information down and keep tack of what they read. Encourage students to use and revisit targeted vocabulary words. Teach students to monitor their own understanding. Show them how, for example, to ask themselves "What's unclear here?" or "What information am I missing?" and "What else should the author be telling me?". Teach children how to make predictions and how to summarize.

Question 162

Other Sources of Reading Difficulty

Answer 162

Many of the reading problems students encounter are related to the five components of reading (phonological and phonemic awareness, word decoding and phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension) covered in Target the Problem! For some students, however, the problem may be the result of a combination of factors – weakness in one or more of the five components and difficulty with some form of processing. For other students, there may be a secondary complicating problem, such as attention, memory, or the challenge of learning English as a second language. Some additional sources of reading difficulties are defined below. They include: Processing (auditory processing, phonological processing, and language processing) Memory Attention English language learning

Question 163

Processing

Answer 163

Successful reading and writing requires that a student is able to process several types of information. Some students may have difficulty with auditory, phonological, and/or language processing. Processing difficulties may co-exist with other difficulties, such as dyslexia and attention deficit disorders.

Question 164

Auditory processing

Answer 164

Auditory processing refers to a set of skills related to how the brain recognizes and interprets information presented orally. This includes not just speech, but also the processing of non-speech auditory stimuli like music and environmental noise. Some people say auditory processing is "what we do with what we hear." Humans hear sounds through the ear and then sounds are changed into electrical information that is interpreted by the brain. Some children (approximately 2-3 percent) are diagnosed with an auditory processing disorder (APD), sometimes called Central Auditory Processing Disorder. It means something is affecting the processing or interpretation of the information a child hears. Some reading experts believe that APD is closely related to disorders of attention, general phonological processing, and language-based difficulties, and does not reflect a separate disorder. Children with auditory processing disorder can have difficulty reading. They often find it difficult to pay attention, listen to, and remember information presented orally. They may need more time to process information. Children with an auditory processing disorder often do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even though the sounds themselves are loud and clear. For more about this, see the Phonological and Phonemic Awareness section.

Question 165

Phonological processing

Answer 165

Phonological processing refers specifically to the processing of speech sounds (phonemes). Many poor readers have a specific weakness in phonological processing even through their other processing skills (auditory and language processing) are strong. This is often the case for students with reading disabilities. Readers with phonological processing difficulties usually have problems decoding words.

Question 166

Language processing

Answer 166

Language processing includes a variety of language abilities including reading and writing. It is a broader term than phonological processing. The research on language processing clearly shows us how important it is for parents and early caregivers to provide stimulating environments full of interesting experiences and new vocabulary words. The daily joys of reading to and talking with babies and toddlers do much to develop later language skills. Children with fewer language-based experiences are typically behind their classmates when they start school in terms of vocabulary and ability to process language. Children with a broad language processing deficit may have problems with comprehension even when they can decode words accurately. Children with severe language disorders will almost certainly have difficulty reading and writing.

Question 167

Memory-in relation to reading difficulties.

Answer 167

In order to read, children must be able to place information into their memories and retrieve it when needed. What helps children understand vocabulary and comprehend what they read is being able to efficiently move back and forth between what they see in print and what is stored in their memories. There are different types of memory, including short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Short-term memory allows you to store small amounts of information for brief periods of time. One example is a telephone number that you remember only until it has been dialed. Working memory allows you to hold intermediate results in your head during thinking. For instance, when you multiply 45 by 4 in your head, you have to keep a series of simple calculations in mind for a short period of time to get to the final answer. Working memory also refers to how you process new information to put it in long-term memory and how you search and retrieve the information when it needs to be remembered again. An important aspect of phonological processing is phonological working memory, shown to be a factor in reading comprehension, written expression, spelling, and retention of information. Long-term memory is where you store a virtually unlimited amount of information about the world. The knowledge we store in our long-term memory affects our perceptions of the world, and what influences in the environment we attend to.

Question 168

Attention-in relation to reading difficulties.

Answer 168

Children must be able to focus their attention in order to decode words, maintain reading fluency, and understand what they read. Children's attention problems can range from mild trouble focusing to severe difficulty maintaining or focusing attention (called ADD, or Attention Deficit Disorder). Some attention problems may involve a high degree of activity or impulsivity (called ADHD, or Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder). The American Psychological Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) provides information about the characteristics of students with ADD and ADHD. The characteristics most common for students with ADD and difficulty with reading are: often failing to give close attention to details, often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly, often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities, and is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli. Researchers in the field of learning disabilities conservatively estimate that approximately 20 percent of students identified as having a learning disability could also be diagnosed as having ADD.

Question 169

English language learning

Answer 169

Currently there are at least 5.1 million students who are English Language Learners (ELLs) in U.S. public K-12 schools. The number of ELLs continues to increase, particularly students whose native language is Spanish. In terms of literacy instruction, ELLs appear to benefit from the same instructional characteristics as do most students – clear instructions, well-designed lessons, opportunities to practice new skills, and guidance and feedback from teachers. Opportunities for repeated practice and oral language activities are particularly important.