Reasoning Flashcards
(45 cards)
What is the structure of a valid argument in affirming the antecedent?
P1. If I am tired, then I will take a nap.
P2. I am tired.
C. Therefore, I will take a nap.
This is an example of modus ponens.
What is the conclusion when denying the antecedent?
P1. If I am tired, then I will take a nap.
P2. I am not tired.
C. Therefore, I will not take a nap.
This argument is invalid because there are other reasons to take a nap.
What is affirming the consequent?
P1. If I am tired, then I will take a nap.
P2. I will take a nap.
C. Therefore, I am tired.
This is an invalid argument and a prevalent fallacy.
What does denying the consequent entail?
P1. If I am tired, then I will take a nap.
P2. I will not take a nap.
C. Therefore, I am not tired.
This is an example of modus tollens and is a valid argument.
What is the conclusion from the premises about the Timberwolves and Lakers games?
P1. The Timberwolves won the first game.
P2. The Lakers won the second game.
P3. Two games have been played in the series.
C. Therefore, the series is tied at one win each.
This is a valid argument.
What defines deductive reasoning?
Rigidly structured, if you accept the premises to be true then you must accept the conclusion.
Requires perfect information and constraints.
What distinguishes inductive reasoning?
Softer, if you accept the premises, the conclusion is reasonable or probable.
It does not guarantee the conclusion is correct.
What is the base-rate neglect fallacy?
Specific violation of valid argument, forgetting to account for the base rate, the frequency in which an outcome applies to the population in question.
Example: disease confidence level.
What is the definition of validity in arguments?
The conclusion follows from the premises, concerned only with structure.
It does not care about correctness or truth.
What is soundness in arguments?
Two requirements: 1. Valid & 2. True premises.
Concerned about truth.
What is a phoneme?
Smallest unit of sound.
Example: ‘chicken’ → 5 phonemes.
What is a morpheme?
Smallest unit of meaning.
Example: ‘chicken’ → 1 morpheme; ‘chickened’ → 2 morphemes.
What is Chomsky’s universal grammar?
Some rules to grasp language are innate, a mechanism exists in our brain for language acquisition.
Example: pronunciation makes humans special.
What does the poverty of stimulus argument suggest?
There’s not enough stimuli available to children to explain all aspects of language acquisition.
Some elements of language grasped innately.
What is the motor theory of speech perception?
We interpret spoken word by interpreting the physical motions of speech.
Influences our perception of speech.
What is the difference between active and passive sentences?
Active: The dog chases the cat. Passive: The cat is chased by the dog.
Humans prefer active sentences.
What are the four aspects of problems?
- Goal: the end game
- Givens: conditions of the problem
- Means of transforming conditions: how to solve
- Obstacles: what hinders progress
What distinguishes well-defined problems from ill-defined problems?
Well-defined problems have clear constraints and goals. Ill-defined problems lack clarity in these areas.
Example: 7 times 4 is well-defined; writing a dissertation is ill-defined.
What is the task environment in problem solving?
External factors relating to the problem, the literal space for problem solving.
Similar to givens.
What is problem space?
Internal mental representation where the problem-solving process takes place.
What is a problem state?
What is the scenario, including initial state and goal state.
Can include intermediate states.
What are problem operators?
Series of problem states, actions or steps to move from one state to another.
What are algorithms in problem solving?
Systematic methods that guarantee a solution but are time/resource-consuming.
What are heuristics?
Cognitive shortcuts that allow for efficient problem-solving but do not guarantee a correct solution.
