Relationships Flashcards
(114 cards)
1
Q
What is the evolutionary explanation for partner preference?
A
Sexual selection
2
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
Natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.
3
Q
What explanation did Darwin give as to why sexual selection occurs?
A
Individuals compete to leave descendents with the most desirable characteristics. Having the most desirable characteristics will increase their offspring’s chance at finding a mate to carry on their bloodline. Therefore sexual selection occurs so that the offspring have the best chance at mating. Sexual selection reduces the chance of random mating. Random mating is likely to produce offspring with less desirable characteristics reducing their ability to mate and pass on their genes.
4
Q
What are the two types of sexual selection identified by Darwin?
A
Intrasexual and intersexual selection
5
Q
What is intrasexual selection?
A
Competition among individuals of one sex (often males) for mates of the opposite sex. Advantageous traits possessed by successful individuals are then inherited by the offspring increasing their abundance in the gene pool.
6
Q
What is intersexual selection?
A
Members of one sex (usually females) develop a preference for a desirable quality in potential mates. Members of the opposite sex who have these traits will gain a mating advantage over individuals who don’t. i.e. the preference of one sex determines the area in which the other sex must compete.
7
Q
Who conducted a study to support the evolutionary theory of partner preferences?
A
Buss
8
Q
What was the sample used in Buss’s study into partner preferences?
A
10,000 individuals from 37 different cultures and of both genders.
9
Q
What was the procedure of Buss’s study into partner preferences?
A
He had the ppts rate 18 characteristics on their importance when finding a partner. Characteristics included physical attractiveness, financial prospects, age, intelligence and kindness.
10
Q
What were the findings of Buss’s study into partner preferences?
A
- more women than men looked for good financial prospects. 2.men placed more importance on physical attractiveness than women (as physical attractiveness tends to provide an insight into health and fertility). 3. men universally wanted women who were younger than them (likely to be more fertile and have less complications in their pregnancy) - supported by a follow up study by Buss looking at marriages in 27 cultures finding that men choose younger women. 4. both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent (linked to good parenting) and kind (linked to a longer term relationship)
11
Q
What did Kasser and Shammer (1999) say about Buss’s study?
A
Culture is likely to affect partner preferences as in cultures where women have less economic and social rights, a partner with good financial prospects is more important in order to provide income and resources, than in cultures where women have these rights and can provide for themselves more easily.
12
Q
Why did Buller say studies on partner preferences lack population validity?
A
Most studies are conducted on undergraduate students so they are more likely to look for a partner who has similar qualities to themselves e.g. well educated, ambitious, hardworking etc.. This lowers the generalisability of findings as their partner preferences are not representative of all individuals.
13
Q
Why does Buss’s study lack ecological validity?
A
Partner preferences are not always representative of mate choice. They are more accurate in showing desirable characteristics than real life marriage statistics especially in countries with high levels of arranged marriages.
14
Q
What did the Penton-Voak et al. (1999) study show about partner preferences and the menstrual cycle?
A
In general, women prefer more feminised faces in a long term partner as it reflects kindness and cooperation. However, at the high risk conception stage, women prefer more masculine faces due to the high levels of testosterone. Therefore, sexual selection favours women who pursue a mixed mating strategy where their mate has a mixture of both of these characteristics.
15
Q
What 3 factors affect attraction?
A
physical attractiveness, self-disclosure, filter theory
16
Q
Who contradicted Buss, based on the idea of physical attractiveness?
A
Eastwick
17
Q
What did Eastwick say about physical attractiveness?
A
Buss suggested that it was only men who had a preference for physical attractiveness when looking for a mate. However, Eastwick suggested that women are also attracted to physical appearance preferring more feminine partners for long term relationships and more masculine partners for the short term.
18
Q
What is the matching hypothesis?
A
When people evaluate their own value in the eyes of a potential partner and then look for a partner of equal value. Although they are also attracted to the most socially desirable partner, they are less likely to form a successful relationship than if they made a realistic mate choice., so tend to choose someone in their league.
19
Q
What is the main contributing factor when deciding our ‘value’ according to the matching hypothesis?
A
physical attractiveness - people tend to pair up to with someone who realistically matches them in order to increase chances of reciprocated attraction. They will assess the desirability of themselves compared to alternatives to decide whether making a move will be successful.
20
Q
Who conducted the computer dance experiment?
A
Walster (1966)
21
Q
Who were the sample in the computer dance experiment?
A
A volunteer sample of 752 university students.
22
Q
What was the method used in the computer dance experiment (1966)?
A
4 judges secretly rated the ppts on their attractiveness when they arrived at the dance and then they were asked to complete a long questionnaire about their personality and intelligence. The ppts were told that they were paired up based on their questionnaire answers but instead they were randomly paired. The ppts were then asked to complete a questionnaire on their date and asked whether they would go on a second date with them. The questionnaire was then repeated 6 months later
23
Q
What were the results and did they support the matching hypothesis?
A
Walster found that the ppts were more attracted to the most physically attractive partners regardless of their own attractiveness. This showed that physical attractiveness was the most important factor in attraction and whether ppts wanted a second date was unaffected by intelligence and personality. This does not support the matching hypothesis as ppts did not base attraction off of their own attractiveness, but instead pursued partners who were the most physically attractive regardless of their own attractiveness.
24
Q
Why does the sample have low population validity?
A
As there is sample bias as only students were studied so they may be likely to look for different qualities in a partner. It also means only a small age group is looked at so findings cannot be applied to older people for example who are likely to want different things compared to someone younger e.g. young people may want a casual relationship where physical attractiveness is a more important trait and someone older may want a more serious relationship so look more for traits like loyalty and kindness.
25
Why does the study lack ecological validity at the time it was conducted? And why might it be more valid if conducted nowadays?
At the time of the study, the scenario is not reflective of real life. Therefore it lacks ecological validlity as it could not be generalised. However, nowadays, blind dates and online dating means scenarios like the computer dance are a more normal situation when looking for a partner. Therefore results are more representative of a real life scenario so have higher ecological validity.
26
What is the halo effect?
People who are judged as attractive tend to be perceived in a positive light?
27
Who conducted a study to support the influcence of the halo effect?
Palmer and Peterson (2012)
28
What was Palmer and Peterson's (2012) study into the halo effect and what were the findings?
Participants were asked to rate attractive and unattractive people in terms of how politically competent and knowledgeable they believed them to be. It was found that attractive people were consistently rated higher on these characteristics compared to unattractive ones. This shows how we expect physically attractive people to have other attractive qualities as well.
29
What is meant by self-disclosure?
The idea that relationship formation is built on trust with another person, which is demonstrated by gradually revealing personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences that they might not share with anyone else.
30
How does self-disclosure lead to attraction?
By gradually revealing emotions and experiences and listening to their reciprocal sharing, people gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust. Self-disclosure allows a partner to reveal their 'true selves' which leads to greater intimacy in romantic relationships, and ultimately to more satisfaction and attraction.
31
What did Berg and Archer say about self-disclosure in a relationship?
That the level of self-disclosure given and received should be the same in order to form a relationship. If disclosure is too limited then you learn nothing about the other person but if it is over personal, then the partner will feel indiscriminate and unspecial and it will seem impersonal.
32
Who conducted an experiment into the effects of self-disclosure on attraction?
Sprecher et al (2013)
33
What sample did Sprecher use in his experiment?
156 undergraduate students from the same US university.
34
What was Sprecher's experiment into self-disclosure?
He paired the ppts into two-person dyads. Around two thirds of these were female-female and the other third male-female. They engaged in a self-disclosure task over skype.
35
There were two conditions used and the dyads were allocated randomly:
Condition 1 = reciprocal condition where each person in the dyad took turns asking questions and disclosing. Condition 2 = non-reciprocal condition were one person asked questions and the other disclosed and then they swapped so the other asked questions and the other disclosed.
36
What were the results of Sprecher's experiment?
Ppts in the reciprocal condition reported liking the other person more and feeling closer with a higher perceived similarity compared to ppts in the non-reciprocal condition after their first interaction. Even after the ppts in the non-reciprocal dyad switched roles, the same difference remained.
37
What could be concluded from Sprecher's research about self-disclosure?
That when self-disclosure is reciprocated, the interpersonal outcomes are stronger. However, non-reciprocal self-disclosure can also lead to positive outcomes although it is not as effective as when reciprocal.
38
What is filter theory?
A theory of attraction where we chose romantic partners by narrowing down the field of availables using filters. 1st is social demography, 2nd is similarity of attitudes and finally complementary of needs.
39
Who developed filter theory?
Kerckhoff and Davis
40
How does similarity of attitudes influence attraction in filter theory?
Self-disclosure allows individuals to share their attitudes and values with potential partners. Individuals with differing beliefs will be filtered out as they are not seen as a suitable partner. Similarity in attitudes is seen as very important in attraction.
41
How does social demography influence attraction in filter theory?
Variables like age, social background and geographical location determine the likelihood of two people meeting. We tend to come into contact with people from the same ethnic, social and educational groups so already feel similar to them. This means we feel comfortable and this increases attraction as we have something in common. This is a social and surface level of attraction rather than attraction from individual differences.
42
How does complementary needs influence attraction in filter theory?
Those who are not filtered out in the previous stages, need to show complementary needs. In order for a relationship to have mutual satisfaction, the needs of one partner need to be met by the other and vise versa. The two individuals cannot have conflicting needs but complementary ones.
43
What was Kerckhoff and Davis' study into filter theory?
They carried out a longitudinal study on couples with each partner completing a questionnaire assessing the degree to which they share values and attitudes (the index of value consensus test) and the the degree to which they complimented each other's needs (the FIRO-B test).7 months later they completed a questionnaire assessing how close they felt to their partner compared to how they felt at the beginning of the study to see if the relationship progressed towards permanence.
44
What did Kerckhoff and Davis find in their study?
For couples who had been dating for under 18 months when the questionnaires were taken, similarity of attitudes was the most significant predictor for how close they were where as for couples how had been dating for over 18 months, complementary of needs was the most significant predictor. This supports filter theory of attraction and relationship success.
45
What are the three theories of relationships?
- social exchange theory (SET), - equity theory, - investment model
46
What is social exchange theory (SET)?
The view of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits, and whether an alternative would be more beneficial.
47
What is profit and loss in terms of SET?
Relationships need to maximise rewards and minimise costs in order to be successful. Rewards can include companionship, sex, money etc.. and costs can include time, money, opportunities etc...
48
What is a comparison level in terms of SET?
A benchmark to which a relationship is judged. It is determined by whether someone offers better or worse prospects than someone else. If the profits exceed the comparison level then a relationship is more likely to be formed. This level is often formed by previous relationships, so if a previous relationship was poor, a poorer relationship (with more costs and less benefits) may be seen as acceptable but if a previous relationship was good, then a poor relationship will be unacceptable.
49
What is comparison level of alternatives in terms of SET?
Comparing the profits of an alternative e.g. being single, moving away for a new job, someone else, with the loss of rewards of the current relationship. If the benefits of the alternative outweigh the loss of leaving the current relationship, the individual will leave.
50
Who conducted a study into SET?
Kurdeck and Schmitt (1986)
51
What was Kurdeck and Schmitt's (1986) study into SET?
They had 4 types of couple complete a questionnaire (without discussing it with each other) about their relationship. The couples all lived together and had no children. There were: - 44 heterosexual married couples - 35 heterosexual cohabiting couples, - 56 same sex female couples, - 50 same sex male couples
52
What were the results of Kurdeck and Schmitt's study into SET?
The questionnaires showed that more positive relationships were linked to the perception of the amount of benefits from the relationship and alternatives to the current relationship being seen as unattractive. This showed that SET can be used to predict relationship satisfaction.
53
What is equity theory?
The theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners. If one partner feels over-benefitted they are likely to feel shame and guilt; if one partner feels under-benefited they may feel angry, sad and resentful. The greater the dissatisfaction, the more likely the relationship is to fail.
54
What did Schaffer and Keith find about the split of household duties, and levels of equity as circumstances in the relationship changed, in their survey?
They found that married couples of all ages felt there was an unfair split of household duties in their relationship. They also found that having children affected levels of equity: - during child rearing years, wives felt under-benefitted while husbands were over-benefitted leading to dissatisfaction within the relationship. - before having children and after they leave home, marriages were more equitable so there was higher satisfaction.
55
What did Hatfield and Rapson say about equity within relationships?
That views on equity, and consequently satisfaction, change over time and that once in a fully committed relationship, equity is less important.
56
What did Byers and Wang say about the effects of equity in relationships?
If there was equity within a couple's relationship, they were less likely to have extra-marital affairs and had longer lasting relationships.
57
What are maintenance strategies?
Maintenance strategies are actions performed by individuals within a relationship to increase equity e.g. assurances to emphasize affection and commitment to the relationship, sharing tasks and positive communication.
58
What was Stafford and Canary's study into equity theory?
200 married couples completed two questionnaires, one on satisfaction and the other on equity in their relationship. Each spouse was also asked about maintenance strategies.
59
What did Stafford and Canary find in their study into equity theory?
That satisfaction was highest for spouses who saw their relationship as equitable. Over-benefited spouses were second happiest and under benefitted spouses were the least satisfied. Under-benefitted husbands were the least likely to use maintenance strategies, they were more likely to suffer in silence or leave the relationship. There was also a relationship between spouses feeling equal and them feeling happy which lead to more maintenance behaviours.
60
What did Aumer-Ryan find about culture and equity theory?
That all cultures believed marriages and relationships should be equitable but the perception of how equitable relationships were varied. The US had the most equitable relationships and Jamaica the least. This shows that although equity theory is correct to say that equity is important, it is limited as perceptions of equity vary across cultures, so the expectations of one culture, in regards to equity, cannot be applied to other cultures. e.g. in collectivist cultures, people claimed to be more satisfied with their relationship when they are over-benefitted than when the relationship is equitable.
61
What did De Maris find about gender differences in equity theory?
De Maris found that men and women have different perceptions of equity with women more likely to feel under-benefited and experience more distress in this situation than men. De Maris accredited this to gender equality in society with women being more vigilant of exploitation.
62
What is the investment model of relationships?
That satisfaction, alternatives and investment size in a relationship influence the commitment levels of each partner which will determine if they stay in, or leave, the relationship.
63
What is satisfaction in terms of the investment model of relationships?
Refers to the negative and positive emotions in a relationship. High levels of positive emotions and low levels of negative emotions lead to high satisfaction which increase success in relationships.
64
What is meant by alternatives in terms of the investment model of relationships?
The extent to which an individual's needs would be better fulfilled outside of the relationship either in another relationship or alone. An individual is more likely to persist in their current relationship if there are no other suitable alternatives.
65
What is means by investment size in terms of the investment model of relationships?
A measure of all the resources that are attached to the relationship e.g. marriage, a house, children, a business, etc.. Investments create a powerful psychological inducement to stay within a relationship as they increase dependence of one partner on the other as these investments/connections would be costly to break.
66
How does satisfaction, alternatives and investment size effect commitment levels in terms of the investment model of relationships?
These three factors affect the likelihood of an individual staying within the relationship as they influence how committed the individual is to the relationship. If there is high satisfaction, no better alternative and a high investment, commitment will be high. Even if there is a good alternative, the individual is still likely to have high commitment due to high satisfaction and investment. If there is low satisfaction, a better alternative and no investment, commitment is likely to be low.
67
How does commitment levels in a relationship determine whether people stay in their relationship?
Having high commitment means you are more likely to stay in the relationship due to high satisfaction, no better alternative and/or a high investment. Conversely, having low commitment means the relationship is more likely to breakdown.
68
What were Le and Agnew's research and findings on the investment model of relationships?
They conducted a meta-analysis of 52 studies, featuring 11,000 participants in total, and discovered that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment greatly contributed to commitment; and that commitment was a defining feature of long-lasting relationships.
69
Why does Le and Agnew's meta-analysis lack culture bias?
As it looks at studies from lots of different cultures with some collectivist e.g. Taiwan and others individualist e.g. the US. This increases the credibility of the investment model as different social norms and cultural values are considered so results of the meta-analysis are more generalisable and thus have higher population validity.
70
How does the investment model explain why individual's stay in abusive relationships?
Rusbult and Martz found that investments and alternatives were a strong predictor as to whether abused women at a shelter returned to their partner. The investment model therefore shows that, despite low satisfaction, the influence of no alternatives and investments e.g. children will increase commitment levels, so individuals stay with their abusive partner.
71
What is the name of the first phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Breakdown phase
72
What is the breakdown phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
When a partner realises they are no longer willing to stand the dissatisfaction with in their relationship.
73
What is the name of the second phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Intrapsychic phase
74
What is the intrapsychic phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
When the partner considers if they are better off outside of their relationship as they feel resentment and underbenefitted. They may not tell their partner but slowly start to withdraw.
75
What is the name of the third phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Dyadic phase
76
What is the dyadic phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Communication with their partner about their discontentment in their relationship. Sometimes their partner has their own issues too. The couple evaluate what binds them, e.g. do they have any children who would be affected? , and what are the costs of ending the relationship. At this point, the relationship can still be saved if both parties are motivated to do so.
77
What is the name of the fourth phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Social phase
78
What is the social phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Where the individuals speak to friends, family and social support networks about their problems. This can make it harder for the couple to reconcile if they give advice encouraging them to break up but they can also give advice encouraging speedier reconciliation.
79
What is the name of the final phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Grave dressing stage
80
What is the grave dressing phase of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Once the relationship ends, the individual paints themselves in a good light and reinterpret their view of their partner so once favourable traits, e.g. enjoyed spending time with me, are now disliked, e.g. they were so clingy. La Gaipa said this was important in forming new relationships as we blame our partner for how the relationship turned out and still see ourselves positively.
81
What is the name of the stage that was added to Duck's model of relationship breakdown in 2006?
Resurrection stage
82
What is the resurrection stage of Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
Where the individual moves past the pain and distress caused by ending the relationship and experience personal growth.
83
What was Tashiro and Frazier study into relationship breakdown and what did they find?
They surveyed 92 undergraduate students who had recently experienced the breakdown of a romantic relationship. They found that individuals experienced emotional distress as well as personal growth and that they felt better about the ending of their relationship when they focus on the situation being responsible for its breakdown, rather than their own flaws.
84
How does Tashiro and Frazier's study support Duck's model of relationship breakdown?
It shows the existence of the resurrection stage of relationship breakdown as it supports the idea of both emotional distress and personal growth after a relationship has ended. It also shows support for the grave dressing stage as it shows how individuals want to view themself in a positive light after the relationship, so rather than placing blame on themselves for why it did not work out, they blame the situation.
85
How does self-disclosure differ between sharing privately and publicly online?
Self-disclosure is less private and intimate on a public forum and the individual shows an edited version of themselves, where as in private, people disclose more private and intimate information due to the increased control over who has access to that information.
86
Why did Rubin say we disclose more online than we do in real life?
Due to the anonymity we feel online. We fear disapproval less when sharing our inner thoughts and feelings online in comparison to face-to-face interactions because we will probably never see them again/meet the person.
87
How do we exercise control over disclosure in public vs private situations?
In private we have control over who has access to the information we share. In public, as we have less control over who has access to the information, we exercise our control over the situation by being more selective with what we share.
88
What is gating in relationships?
Where an individual's mannerisms and appearance determine who we approach. If an individual is less attractive or is shy in social situations, these will act as gates preventing a relationship from being developed.
89
What did Zhao find about how gating differs between virtual relationships and those in real life?
In real life, gating is more prominent than online as, online, the gated individuals can establish, and better portray, their identity which they are unable to do in face-to-face interactions. However, he said that people tend to show highly edited, fictional representations of themselves online, who they consider to be more desirable.
90
What did Yurchisin find about virtual identities?
When interviewing online daters, although, like Zhao suggests, individuals showed a better version of themselves to increase dating chances, they also gave accounts of their true self. This shows that online identities are likely to be close to their true identity.
91
What was Rosenfeld and Thomas's study into virtual relationships?
They studied 4000 adults to see if there was a correlation between having access to the internet and being in a relationship. They then repeated the study controlling factors like age, gender and education.
92
What did Rosenfeld and Thomas find about virtual relationships in their study?
In the first study they found that 71.8% of adults with the internet were in a relationship compared to only 35.9% of the people who did not have the internet. This shows that having a virtual environment helps people to establish a maintain a romantic relationship. In the follow up where more variables were controlled, ppts with internet were still twice as likely to be in a relationship than those who didn't.
93
What are the main issues surrounding Rosenfeld and Thomas's study?
- do not know the number of ppts with internet and those without. A majority of the sample may have no internet so despite a lower percentage of people being in a relationship, there may be a smaller difference in the actual number of ppts in a relationship. - only correlational. Cannot establish a cause and effect as there are likely to be confounding variables as just because individuals have access to the internet, it does not mean that is how they met their partner. - ethnocentric as, in cultures where there is little to no internet access, the internet is unlikely to be an influencing factor into forming a relationship. - it also does not take into account the length or success of a relationship.
94
What is a parasocial relationship?
A one-sided, interpersonal relationship with strong perceived emotional intimacy between an individual with someone (usually a celebrity) who is unaware of the existence of the person who created the relationship.
95
What is the attachment theory of parasocial relationships theorised by Cole and Leets?
That insecure resistant people are more likely to engage in parasocial relationships as they fear rejection from 'normal' relationships. Having a parasocial relationships takes away the possibility of rejection whilst fulfilling the individual's need for a relationship. Secure people can form parasocial relationships but only when they have trust issues with their real life partner. Insecure avoidant people are least likely to form a parasocial relationship as they avoid relationships whether they are real or parasocial.
96
What is proximity seeking in terms of parasocial relationships?
Individuals seek both physical and emotional bonds within their parasocial relationship so want to meet them, and also want to know everything about them.
97
What is a secure base in terms of parasocial relationships?
There is no fear of rejection in a parasocial relationship as it is a one-sided relationship. It is a form of escapism for the individual and they use it as a form of comfort and distraction. They'll also use the focus of their parasocial relationship to guide decisions.
98
What is protest at disruption in terms of parasocial relationships?
It is distress which occurs when the focus of the parasocial relationship dies, retires, leaves the public eye, forms a new relationship etc...
99
Who came up with the absorption addiction model for parasocial relationships?
McCutcheon based off of Giles and Maltby's levels of celebrity worship.
100
What are the three levels of celebrity worship devised by Giles and Maltby?
Entertainment social, intense personal and borderline pathological.
101
How did Giles and Maltby determine the three levels of celebrity worship?
With a large-scale survey known as the celebrity attitude scale which included statements like 'I share with my celebrity a special bond that cannot be described in words' and 'I consider my favourite celebrity to be my soulmate'
102
What is the entertainment social level of celebrity worship?
when the individual finds out about the celebrity and is attracted to them so begins keeping up to date with them for entertainment and gossip e.g. following them on social media
103
What is the intense personal level of celebrity worship?
when an individual develops intensive and compulsive feelings for their celebrity believing they have a deeper connection with them e.g. joining a fan club.
104
What is the borderline-pathological level of celebrity worship?
when an individual over identifies with their celebrity so has uncontrollable behaviours and fantasies about them e.g. believing that if they walked into the celebrity's house they'd be pleased to see them
105
What is the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships?
where an individual shows an effortless focussing of attention which leads them to think they have a relationship with the celebrity. This is the absorption stage as it leads the individual to discover more information about them. If the attachment is strong enough, the motivation to find out more about them, to see them, contact them increases and becomes addictive and the attachment/ parasocial relationship forms.
106
What was Schiappa's study into parasocial relationships?
He conducted a meta-analysis into the amount of TV watched and parasocial relationships.
107
What did Schiappa find out about television and parasocial relationships?
Schiappa found a significant positive relationship between a parasocial relationship with a TV character and the character's attractiveness and their similarity to the viewer. This shows that identification is key in the formation of parasocial relationships.
108
What did Eyal and Cohen's study show about loneliness and parasocial relationships?
When looking at 279 students who were fans of the TV show 'friends', they found that there is a complex relationship between parasocial relationships and loneliness. Originally it was said that parasocial relationships formed due to loneliness, yet Eyal and Cohen found that the students experienced loneliness when the show ended suggesting that parasocial relationships can be both caused by, and cause, loneliness.
109
KEY STUDY: Trivers (1972)
Females make a greater investment of time, commitment and resources before, during and after birth
110
KEY STUDY: Fisher's (1930)
A woman chooses a man because he has a characteristic she wants (e.g. Tall male) Any male children she has will inherit this characteristic and will be more desirable to women. Over generations the characteristic becomes more pronounced – this is known as the runaway process. This only stops when the trait becomes too costly or female preference changes.
111
KEY STUDY: Altman and Taylor (1973)
Relationships are a gradual process of revealing your inner self to someone (Onion metaphor). In romantic relationships it involves reciprocal exchange of information between partners. This leads to a deep understanding of each others lives. There are two elements to this idea – breadth and depth. Altman and Taylor use the onion metaphor (layers) to explain this. Low risk information is revealed early on in a relationship and high risk information comes out as the relationship progresses.
112
KEY STUDY: Reis and Shaver (1988)
There tends to be a balance of self disclosure in successful romantic relationships, as well as breadth and depth After disclosing information, you want your partner to respond in a rewarding way, with understanding and empathy. Increases intimacy and deepens the relationship
113
KEY STUDY: Shackelford and Larson (1997)
found people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest signal of genetic fitness (its hard to fake facial symmetry)
114
KEY STUDY: Dion et al (1972) - The Halo Effect
Physically attractive people are rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful compared to unattractive people. The belief that good looking people will have such characteristics makes them more attractive to us, so we behave more positively towards them – a self fulfilling prophecy
