relationships

Question 1

What is Anisogamy?

(Evolutionary Theory)

Answer 1

Refers to the difference between male and female reproductive sex cells (two types of gametes which differ from each other, in size and form)

Question 2

What is Natural Selection?

(Evolutionary Theory)

Answer 2

Certain physical and psychological traits have been passed down from one generation to another due to their advantages in survival and reproduction

Question 3

What is Sexual Selection?

(Evolutionary Theory)

Answer 3

Certain physical and psychological traits that have been passed down from one generation to another, due to their advantage in attracting a mate

Question 4

What are the two types of Sexual Selection?

(Evolutionary Theory)

Answer 4

1. Intersexual Selection: (between sexes) possessing certain characteristics to attract a mate
2. Intrasexual Selection: (within a sex) outcompeting other males

Question 5

What was Buss’s study into Evolutionary Theory?

Answer 5

A meta-analysis where he surveyed over 10,000 adults in 33 countries: the questionnaire had 2 parts:

1. Biological data, mate reference and ranking 18 characteristics
2. Rating 1-13 most to least desirable

The results were analysed by US researchers who were unaware of the hypothesis. Finding that females universally put more importance on resource-related characteristics in a partner, such as ambition, high intelligence and good financial prospects. Males, however, preferred younger mates and put more value on signs of reproduction and fertility, such as attractiveness and modesty

Question 6

What support is there for intersexual selection?
- Clark and Hatfield

(Evolutionary Theory)

Answer 6

Two people of both sexes went around a university campus and said this to individuals:

“I’ve noticed you around campus and think you’re really attractive. Will you have sex with me tonight?”

75% of males agreed to the proposal, whereas no females did. This supports intersexual selection as it suggests females are choosier than males when it comes to selecting sexual partners and that males have evolved different strategies to ensure reproductive success

Question 7

What is Sexual Dimorphism?

(Physical Attractiveness)

Answer 7

Physical differences between the sexes. Males have evolved over time to be larger as a result of a polygynous (men with multiple partners) mating system

Question 8

What is The Golden Ratio?

(Physical Attractiveness)

Answer 8

Is a way of distinguishing attractiveness, founded by Leonardo Fibonacci. People with more symmetrical features are seen to be more genetically fit, this is because our genes are designed to make us develop in a symmetrical way - but disease and infection during physical development can cause small imperfections and asymmetries

Question 9

What is The Halo Effect?

(Physical Attractiveness)

Answer 9

“What is beautiful is good”

Describes a psychological phenomenon based around attractiveness

Question 10

What is Matching Hypothesis?

(Physical Attractiveness)

Answer 10

Walster, 1966:

We choose our partners based on them being a similar level of physical attractiveness to ourselves. Couples who are well-matched in their attractiveness are most likely to be happier and in a stable relationship than those who are mismatched

Question 11

What is Complex Matching?

(Physical Attractiveness)

Answer 11

We may compensate lack of attractiveness with other desirable qualities such as humour, kindness, money, charm. This is a more advanced matching system and would explain why some partnerships are not equal in physical attractiveness

Question 12

What are the four Degrees of Social Penetration Theory?

Answer 12

1. Orientation Stage: this is the stage where many “play it safe” and only engage in simple small talk
2. Exploratory Affective Stage: attitudes and feelings begin to be expressed on moderate topics such as religion and politics
3. Affective Stage: private and personal matters begin to be shared and criticisms are arguments sometimes arise
4. Stable Stage: individuals are able to predict how another will act and personal things continue to be shared

Question 13

What is Self-disclosure?

(Social Penetration Theory)

Answer 13

Voluntary disclosure of intimate/personal detail about oneself to others

Question 14

What are the two aspects of Self-disclosure?

(Social Penetration Theory)

Answer 14

1. Receivers perspective: people are more attracted to people who disclose personal details to them
2. Givers perspective: people are more likely to disclose information to people they like

Question 15

What is Breadth?

(Social Penetration Theory)

Answer 15

Altman and Taylor, 1973:

Is the quantity of information that is disclosed to another individual. Categories can range from sports, religion and politics

Question 16

What is Depth?

(Social Penetration Theory)

Answer 16

Altman and Taylor, 1973:

Is the frequency of breadth or level of interest within a category - however if frequency is not met, a relationship can be maintained with duration

Question 17

What is Reciprocity?

(Social Penetration Theory)

Answer 17

Reis and Shaver:

We must feel like the sharing is mutual to feel increasing levels of intimacy

Question 18

Evaluation of Social Penetration Theory

Answer 18

Strengths:
- Laurenceau, 2005: found a correlation between self-disclosure/reciprocity and satisfaction/intimacy. This was found through using daily diary entries of married heterosexual couples
- Hass & Stafford, 1998: found that 57% of gay men and women reported that open honest communication as the main way that maintains and deepens a relationship. Self-disclosure and reciprocity can be used consciously to help those seeking to improve their relationship

Limitation:
- Social Media:
1. Boom or Bust, self-disclosure is increased due to anonymity and does so quickly
2. Knop et al, 2016, people disclose more face-to-face due to clues, eye contact, silence in conversation, etc

Question 19

What is Filter Theory?

Answer 19

An idea to explain how some romantic relationships form and develop. We have a field of availables and potential romantic partners - but not everyone is desirable. So we filter those who we think are desirable

Question 20

What is Kerckhoff and Davis’ study?

(Filter Theory)

Answer 20

A longitudinal study that looked at 94 dating couples at Duke University, USA. They used 2 questionnaires within their study and did a follow up 7 months later:

1. Index of value consensus Test - attitudes and beliefs
2. FIRO-B - complementary of need

Initially the only similarity correlated with closeness. The first 18 months couples attitudes and values correlated with closeness, but after 18 months complementarity of need was a better indicator of closeness

Question 21

What are the 3 stages of Filter Theory and what are their attributes?

Answer 21

Social Demography: age, culture, locality, religion

Similarity in attitudes: values, beliefs, attitudes

Complementarity: how well we meet the needs of our partner and vice versa

Question 22

Evaluation of Filter Theory

Answer 22

Limitations:
- Lacks temporal validity as the ideas are based on thoughts/views of the 1950s and are then conducted in the 60s, meaning not many attributes are relevant in modern time
- The stages based on time is very limited as relationships are fluid and don’t conform to a time frame
- It poses the question as to are we naturally similar or do we match over time?

Question 23

What is Social Exchange Theory?

Answer 23

The idea that social behaviour is a result of an exchange process. The result is to maximise the benefits and minimise the costs

Question 24

What is the Comparison Level (CL)?

(Social Exchange Theory)

Answer 24

Using previous experience we identify how much reward we think we deserve in a relationship, this is our CL and we judge relationships against it to determine whether to pursue it or not

Question 25

What is the Comparison Level of alternatives (CLat)? (Social Exchange Theory)

Answer 25

A second comparison where we consider if there is a better alternative available. We will stay in a relationship when we feel there is no better option

Question 26

What are the four stages identified by Thibault and Kelley? (Social Exchange Theory)

Answer 26

1. Sampling Stage: we explore the rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships (not just romantic ones), or by observing others doing so 2. Bargaining Stage: makes the beginning of the relationship, when romantic partners start exchanging various rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what is most profitable 3.Commitment Stage: as time goes on, the sources of cost and reward becomes more stable as rewards increase and costs lessen 4. Institutionalisation Stage: the partners are now settled down because the norm of the relationship, in terms of rewards and costs, are firmly established

Question 27

How can you apply Social Exchange Theory to real-life?

Answer 27

Integrated Behavioural Couples Therapy: IBCT - was used to treat 60 couples in Christensen's study, 2/3 of the couples relationships were improved 2 years later

Question 28

What is Miller’s study? (Social Exchange Theory)

Answer 28

Found people who rated themselves as being in a committed relationship spent less time looking at imagines of alternative people. And also found that less time looking was a good predictor of the relationship continuing 2 months later

Question 29

What did Walster et al suggest? (Equity Theory)

Answer 29

That the most successful relationships are those where levels of giving and receiving are balanced 1. You get what you put in = satisfaction 2. Both partners contribute equal benefits and accept equal costs

Question 30

What is Stafford and Canary’s **key study**? (Equity Theory)

Answer 30

They asked over 200 married couples to complete measures of equity and relationship satisfaction. Each spouse was asked about their use of relationship maintenance strategies such as: 1. Assurance (emphasising affection/commitment) 2. Sharing Tasks (household responsibilities/chores) 3. Positivity (communicating in an optimistic/upbeat manner) They found that satisfaction was highest for spouses who perceived their relationship to be equitable

Question 31

How to deal with inequity - Hatfield and Rapson? (Equity Theory)

Answer 31

1. Restoration of actual equity: restoring by voluntary setting things right or by urging their partners to do so 2. Restoration of psychological equity: inequitable couples can distort reality and convince themselves that things are perfectly fine how they are 3. Leave: this can be physically (divorce) or emotionally (no longer having feelinh for their partner)

Question 32

What is the gender difference in the importance of equity - DeMaris et al? (Equity Theory)

Answer 32

Women tend to perceive themselves as more under-benefitted compared to men. Suggesting the main reason for this is that women’s greater relationship focus may make them more sensitive to injustice and inequity. A consequence of this is that women are more likely to be vigilant about equity and more likely to react negatively to injustices and inequity

Question 33

What is the Capuchin Monkey study - Brosnon and de Waal? (Equity Theory)

Answer 33

They did a study on Capuchin monkeys, found that females became angry if they were denied a hight prized reward of grapes i return for playing a game. If a monkey (who played no part in the game) received a grape, the other monkey grew angry and hurled food at the experimenter Found that these studied echoing what researchers have found in human relationships and suggests that the perception of inequity has ancient origins - supporting equity theory

Question 34

What are the three types of individual in regards to population validity - Huseman? (Equity Theory)

Answer 34

1. Benevolents - givers/tolerant of under-reward 2. Equity Sensitives - people more sensitive to equity/inequity 3. Entitles - always feel they are owed and need over-reward to feel happy

Question 35

What is the equation proposed by Rusbult? (Investment Model)

Answer 35

Satisfaction + Alternatives + Investments = Commitment Levels = Future stay/leave decisions

Question 36

What are the two types of investment? (Investment Model)

Answer 36

1. Extrinsic - didn’t feature in but are now closely tied to the relationship 2. Intrinsic - anything put directly into the relationship

Question 37

What is the real-world application in terms of explaining abusive relationships? (Investment Model)

Answer 37

The model is able to explain why individuals may persist in a relationship with an abusive partner. Victims of partner abuse experience low satisfaction, which would lead us to believe they would leave the partner, yet many stay. The model highlights features of the relationship that explains why a victim might stay: may be due to lack of availables, or too much investment within the partner

Question 38

What did Goodfriend and Agnew state? (Investment Model)

Answer 38

Suggested that it is not only current investments that are important but also planned future investments

Question 39

What is the meta-analysis by Le et al? (Investment Model)

Answer 39

Analysed data from nearly 38,000 participants, in 137 different studies, over the course of a 33-year period ti discover the key variables that predict ‘staying or leaving’ behaviour in non-marital relationships. Commitment (or lack) was a particularly strong predictor of whether a relationship would break up. Other aspects (satisfaction, quality of alternatives and the investment) were modest predictors of the likelihood of staying in a relationship or breaking up

Question 40

What does Duck's model state? (Relationship Breakdown)

Answer 40

That there must first be dissatisfaction in the relationship

Question 41

What are the three broad categories identified by Duck? (Relationship Breakdown)

Answer 41

1. Mechanical Failure: two suitable people of goodwill and good nature grow apart and find they cannot live together (most common cause) 2. Pre-existing Doom: incompatibility and failure are almost predestined 3. Sudden Death: the discovery of betrayal/infidelity leads to immediate termination

Question 42

What are the four stages of relationship breakdown proposed by Duck? (Relationship Breakdown)

Answer 42

1. The Intrapsychic phase: during the phase, a person may begin to reflect on the shortcomings of their current relationship. May show little outward dissatisfaction, indirect communication about their feelings 2. The Dyadic phase: after a partner has decided the problems need to be addressed, it is time to confront the other partner. This phase is often characterised by arguing but it is still possible for the relationship to be repaired 3. The Social phase: dissatisfaction is now openly made known and is shared with friends and family. Sharing with the social network may speed up the breakdown as people take sides. They offer support after the relationship end (Noack et al, 1986) 4. The Grave-dressing phase: the relationship is now ended. Partners justify their decisions. They present themselves as maintaining trust and loyalty. Represents the relationship ending in favourable terms regarding their part in the failure

Question 43

Evaluation of Duck (Relationship Breakdown)

Answer 43

Strength: - Backed up by equity theory (Hatfield) meaning it has external validity Limitations: - Very reductionist/simplistic as it focuses on individual aspects - It assumes/generalises behaviour into ALL social relationships when not all are similar - It's retrospective, focuses on the event after it happened, links to Eye Witness Testimony and Post Event Discussion and retrieval failure