Relationships

Question 1

What is sexual selection?

Answer 1

Some characteristics are successful in aiding reproduction, may not be advantageous but for survival but can help attract a parter, which encourages mating

Question 2

What is anisogamy?

Answer 2

Refers to the difference between male and female sex cells (gametes)

Other sex will compete for the sex who invests the most - becomes a limiting resource

Males produce many sperm, small in size, energetically cheap

Females produce few eggs, large in size, energetically expensive

Thus females are more picky in her choice of a mate

Question 3

What is inter-sexual selection?

Answer 3

Between sexes, strategies that males or females select one another from = competition

Question 4

What is intra-sexual selection?

Answer 4

Within each sex, strategies between males to be the one that is selected

Question 5

What is dimorphism?

Answer 5

The obvious differences between males and females

Question 6

Evaluation for evolutionary explanation

Answer 6

+ Buss
10000 people
37 cultures
Found females look for resources, financial stability, ambition = evolutionary advantage is it supports a better quality of life for child
Found males look for youth and physical attractiveness = evolutionary advantage is that they are more likely to have children

+ Clark and Hatfield
approached strangers at uni campus
asked 3 questions = would you go on date with me (50% males, 56% females said yes, would you go back to my apartment (69% males, 6% females), would you have sex with me (75% males, 0% females)
Found females were more likely to go on a date, but males were more likely to go back to an apartment or have sex
Supports the idea that males are looking to spread genes, females looking for resources and commitment

• Does not explain homosexual partner preferences

+ males look for hip to waist ratio of 0.7
shows signs of fertility
attractive because it is an honest signal that the women is fertile but not currently pregnant

Question 7

What are the three factors affecting attraction?

Answer 7

1. Self - disclosure
2. Physical attractiveness
3. Filter theory

Question 8

What is self disclosure?

Answer 8

Revealing personal information about yourself, tends to get deeper and more frequent as relationships develop, can strengthen romantic bond when used appropriately

Question 9

What is the social penetration theory?

Answer 9

Altman and Taylor
as each person reveals more personal information about themselves it displays trust to the other person
as each partner reveals more they get deeper and deeper

1. Superficial communication
2. Building trust
3. Strong working relationship

Breadth and Depth

Levels = superficial, intimate, personal, core

Needs reciprocity

Question 10

Evaluation of the factors affecting attraction - self disclosure

Answer 10

+ Sprecher and Hendrick
studied heterosexual couples
found strong correlation between amount of self disclosure and measures of the quality of the relationship

• correlation does not equal causation
  happier relationships may disclose more
• Generally thought females are better communicators = example of alpha bias, exaggerating the differences between men and women
• does not take into account cultural differences - self disclosure may not always lead to more intimate relationships
  research in China and USA
• high self disclosure found in breakdown stage of relationship = does not always mean satisfaction levels are high

Question 11

What factors make people attractive?

Answer 11

1. Symmetrical faces
2. Baby faces

Question 12

What is the halo affect?

Answer 12

People who are attractive are seen as having more positive personality traits

Question 13

What is the matching hypothesis?

Answer 13

• look for partner on similar level of attractiveness
• avoid pain of rejection by not chasing partners we see as too attractive
• retain partners by not choosing someone who will leave us for someone else
• realistically appraise out attractiveness compared to others

Question 14

What is the computer dance study?

Answer 14

Walster
752 students
- when ticket bought, told that personal information given would be fed to computer to find ‘ideal match’ date
- in fact they were randomly assigned
- observer marked them on attractiveness
- students asked how much they liked partner after date

Found most liked partners were the most attractive ones - not ones that matched own level of attractiveness
Contradicts matching hypothesis as people did not prefer those who were similar to themselves

Question 15

Evaluation for the matching hypothesis

Answer 15

+ physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent

• dating apps show people go for others more attractive than themselves
  suggests that people are always looking to do better than how they rate themselves

+ dating sites may not be used to actually select a long term partner

• individual differences
  high score on macho scale = physical attractiveness more important
  low score on macho scale = physical attractiveness less important
• methodological issue = subjective, based off individual preferences

Question 16

What is filter theory?

Answer 16

Kerchkoff and Davis
- how romantic relationships form and develop
- three main factors we use to narrow down our range of partners to a field of desirable
1. Social demography = more likely to come into contact with people who live in our area (proximity filter)
2. Similarity in atitudes = due to social demography, more likely to come into contact with people with similar core values
(Kerchkoff and davies = only important in first 18 months)
3. Complementarity = attracted to people who can meet/fulfil each others needs, partners complement each other when they have the traits that the other lacks
(Kerchkoff and Davies found this was more important for long term couples)

Question 17

Evaluation for filter theory

Answer 17

• dating apps remove the first filter
  allows an increased area of people for you to meet
• 70 lesbian couples
  4.5 average years together
  valued similarity which goes against complementarity - third stage of filter theory

+ similarity in values valued in less than 18 month couples, complementarity valued in more than 18 month couples

• assumes that relationships after 18 months are long term/committed
  some cultures commit to marriage before 18 months (long term relationship)

Question 18

What is social exchange theory?

Answer 18

Thibault and Kelley
Economic theory
involves constant exchange of resources
trying to maximise rewards and limit costs
relationships will fail if not profitable
relationships have opportunity costs - investment of resources cannot be invested elsewhere

Question 19

What is comparison level?

Answer 19

the amount of reward you believe that you deserve to get = profit

Question 20

What is the comparison level for alternatives?

Answer 20

where we weigh up a potential increase in rewards from a potential partner, minus any costs involved in ending out current relationship

Question 21

What are the four stages all relationships go through?

Answer 21

1. Sampling = explore rewards and costs
2. Bargaining = beginning of relationship - exchange rewards and costs
3. Commitment = rewards and costs become more predictable
4. Institutionalisation = partners settled, rewards and costs are firmly established

Question 22

Evaluation of SET

Answer 22

+ Kurdek
asked gay, lesbian, heterosexual couples to complete questionnaire
found most committed relationships had most perceived rewards and fewest costs and viewed alternatives as unattractive

• difficult to quantify
  individual differences for rewards and costs
  SET is challenging to test in a valid way
• assumes people are selfish and does not consider equity = not the balance of rewards and costs but partners perceptions that this is fair
• assumes all romantic relationships are economic in nature = partners don’t keep score of otherwise it would destroy the trust that underlies a close emotional relationship - not applicable

Question 23

What is Equity theory?

Answer 23

Walster
economic theory
both partners value their levels of profit equally
when a partner is over or under benefiting the satisfaction of the relationship may decrease

not the size or amount of rewards or costs but the ratio of the two to each other

greater the perceived inequality the greater the dissatisfaction = strong correlation between the two

Question 24

What are changes in perceived equity?

Answer 24

Equity changes as time goes on = less satisfaction than at the beginning of relationship

Question 25

How to deal with inequity?

Answer 25

1. Behavioural = try to make relationship more equitable 2. Cognitive = revise perceptions of rewards and costs so the relationship feels more equitable

Question 26

Evaluation of equity theory

Answer 26

+ couples that considered their relationships as most equitable were most satisfied = research confirms a central prediction of equity theory, increasing validity as an explanation of romantic relationships + evolutionary advantage = monkey given task to do, given cucumber as rewards, happy to continue with task until one got a grape (higher valued treat), they then refused to complete their task for a cucumber and got very angry at the inequity - animals also value the importance of equity, ancient origins - individual differences = some people are less sensitive to equity than others 1. Benevolents = contribute more than they get out of it 2. Entitleds = believe they deserve to over benefit and accept it without feeling distressed or guilty Shows equity theory is not universal and equity is not necessarily a global feature

Question 27

What is Rusbult's investment model?

Answer 27

commitment to a relationship depends on three different factors 1. Satisfaction level 2. Comparison level with alternatives 3. Investment size These lead to a commitment level which ultimately decides the persons future decision to whether they stay or leave

Question 28

What is satisfaction based on?

Answer 28

Whether rewards outweigh the costs

Question 29

What is comparison level of alternatives based on?

Answer 29

Whether a new partner has a potential increase in rewards/profit - minus costs involved in ending out current relationship

Question 30

What is investment size based on?

Answer 30

Cl and Clalt are not enough to explain commitment to a relationship Investments are resources associated with a romantic relationship which partners would lose if their relationship were to end Intrinsic = resources we put in, tangible or intangible = house or emotions/time Extrinsic = things that did not previously feature before the relationship, possessions bought recently or mutual friends, tangible or intangible

Question 31

Satisfaction vs commitment

Answer 31

Commitment is more important than satisfaction - dissatisfied partners will stay as they do not want to see their investment go to waste - commitment

Question 32

What are the relationship maintenance mechanisms?

Answer 32

1. Accomodation 2. Willingness to sacrifice 3. Forgiveness 4. Positive illusions 5. Ridiculing alternatives

Question 33

Evaluation for Rusbults investment model

Answer 33

+ can explain abusive relationships although satisfaction may be low investment size may be very high they may lack alternative potential partners Strength of investment model as it shows that satisfaction on its own cannot explain why people stay in relationships - commitment and investment are also factors + study found satisfaction, comparison level with alternatives, and investment size all predicted relationship commitment also found relationships with the highest commitment levels were more stable and lasted the longest consistent across men and women, all cultures, both homosexual and heterosexual relationships Suggests some validity to Rusbult's claim that these factors are universally important features of a romantic relationship - correlation does not equal causation could be that the more commitment someone is, the more investment they are willing to make. Therefore, the direction of causality may be the reverse of that predicted by the model

Question 34

What is Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?

Answer 34

1. Intra-psychic phase = cognitive, dissatisfied partner mulls in private over why they are dissatisfied 2. Dyadic phase = partners confront each other to discuss relationship issues and have conversations relating to inequity, intimacy and costs of breakup - two outcomes break up, or desire to repair relationship, self disclosure may become deeper and more frequent 3. Social phase = split couple tells social network, pick sides and provide support (point of no return) 4. Grave - dressing phase = partners create narrative of break-up so they can save face. Blame partner or circumstances out of their control, may twist story - show positive traits as negative, may question decision and consider how the break-up has impacted their social network, finally reach the conclusion to move on

Question 35

Evaluation of Ducks Phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 35

- incomplete model oversimplified modified the model to add a fifth phase called resurrection phase - partners use experience gained from recently ended one ands use it in future relationships - description rather than explanatory = gives insight into the stage of relationship breakdown but not why or how + good real world application such insights could be used in relationships counselling = a real life application - felmlee's model states relationships break down for the same quality that cased you to be attracted to someone in the first place - assumes break up process is universal

Question 36

Virtual relationship in social media

Answer 36

internet based not face to face researchers interested in how important self disclosure is in virtual relationships and how it wors

Question 37

What are the two theories in virtual relationships?

Answer 37

1. hyperpersonal model = more personal and greater self disclosure due to ability to develop faster as disclosure happens earlier, once established more intense and intimate - can end due to excitement without trust or boom and bust phenomenon 2. reduced cues theory = no eye contact, facial expression, tone of voice (less effective?)

Question 38

What are the two features of hyperpersnal self-disclosure?

Answer 38

1. sender of message has greater control over disclosure and cues - hyper honest/dishonest 2. reciever gains positive impression of sender they offer positive reinforcement which encourages that selective self-presentation

Question 39

What did John Barg say about the role of anonymity?

Answer 39

"stranger on the train phenomenon" individuals rapidly reveal personal information with complete strangers in public places

Question 40

what is a gate in virtual relationships?

Answer 40

a barrier to entry - any obstacle that stops someone forming a relationship there is an absence of gating in virtual relationships therefore relationships are more likely to get off the ground, and quicker

Question 41

What are the benefits and drawbacks of absence of gating?

Answer 41

+ Individual is more free to be more like their 'true selves' - People can create online identities that they could never manage FTF (Catfish)

Question 42

Evaluation of virtual relationships in social media

Answer 42

- lack of research cues are available just different people use cues such as style and timing of message as well as acronyms or emojis to express emotions + Mckenna and Bargh shy/socially anxious people are able to express their true selves more than in FTF interactions 70% lasted 2 years online compared to 50% lasted in 'real world' relationships Suggests that the absence of gating enables shy people to be their true selves and create long lasting relationships online - online relationships are likely influenced by our offline interactions

Question 43

What are Parasocial relationships?

Answer 43

One sided relationships - usually with celebrity

Question 44

How can we measure attraction to celebrities?

Answer 44

1. Entertainment social 2. Intense personal 3. Borderline - pathological

Question 45

What is the absorption addiction model?

Answer 45

Absorption = looking for satisfaction due to potential personal crisis, helps take their mind off of it Addiction = person needs to keep increasing dosage to receive same effects as earlier on - can become heavily addicted which can lead to stalking (extreme behaviour/delusional thinking)

Question 46

What is the attachment theory of parasocial relationships?

Answer 46

Insecure resistant (type C) leads to an increased interest in celebrities - seek to have unfulfilled needs met, but has no chance of rejection or break up/disappointment that real life relationships bring

Question 47

Evaluation of parasocial relationships

Answer 47

+ good cultural validity individualistic and collectivist both show insecure attachment types were the most likely to develop intense parasocial relationships with tv personalities and characters - McCutcheon (2006) found that insecure resistant participants were no more likely to form parasocial relationships with celebrities than participant with secure attachments