relationships Flashcards
1
Q
definite sexual selection
A
explains how evolution is driven by competition for mates, and the development of characteristics that ensure reproductive success
2
Q
define intrasexual selection
A
- individuals must outcompete other members of their own sex to gain access to members of the other sex
- successful individuals are able to pass on their genes
3
Q
define intersexual selection
A
- individuals evolve preferences for desirable qualities in potential mates
- members of the opposite sex who have these characteristics will then gain a mating advantage over those who don’t
- the preferences of one sex determines the area in which the other sex must compete
4
Q
what is the rationale behind sexual selection
A
- good to be picky as the genetic quality of mate will determine half of the genetic qualify of an offspring
- low quality mates = more likely to produce unattractive offspring so pair up with attractive mate and those genes will be passed on
5
Q
sexual selection means that females are attracted to what sort of mates?
A
- resourceful
- can physically protect them and child
- show promise of being a good parent
- compatible
however, mates are more attracted to females who show fertility
6
Q
outline producers and findings of Buss’s study ( evolutionary explanations for partner preferences )
A
- 10,000 people from 37 cultures
- participants asking to rate characteristics on how important they would be in choosing a mate
- four point scale used from 3 (indispensable) to 0 (irrelevant)
- women more than makes desired mates with good financial prospects
- men placed more importance of physical attractiveness and universally wanted mates who were younger them themselves -increased fertility
- both sexes wanted mates who were intelligent and kind
7
Q
the evolutionary perspective argues what…
A
that the preferences,behaviours and relationships of men and women today have their origins in the evolutionary past
8
Q
natural and sexual selection may explain the differences in what
A
- what men and women find attractive
- the qualities they seek in partners
- differences in human reproductive behaviours
9
Q
explain Cunninghams investigation on what males find attractive in females
A
- investigated what types of female faces are found attractive by males
- systematically varied the size of the female facial features. Used same female face picture but altered features on computer. This acted as a control variable
- found that men were most attracted to features associated with young children - large eyes, small nose etc
- some features associated with maturity such as prominent cheekbones were also found attractive
10
Q
what did Singh found out about body shape
A
-men ranked women with a small waist to his ration of around 0.7 (waist 70% size of the hips) as the most attractive and healthy
11
Q
what did Waynforth find out about what females find attractive in males
A
- masculine facial features including a square jaw, rigged eyebrows, thin lips were preferred by women, especially those seeking a short term partner
- the ideal waist to hip ratio in makes was around 0.85. Wide shoulders down to narrowing hips
12
Q
what is found attractive to both females and males ?
A
- symmetrical faces (Bruce and Young)
- Pawlowski asked a sample of 218 males and females to rank attractiveness of 7 pictures of men and women which were altered in leg length. In both sexes 5% longer than average legs were seen as the most attractive
13
Q
explain what Buss found in his cross cultural study in partner preferences
A
- men valued physical attractiveness more than women
- men valued women who were younger than themselves
- women valued financial capacity and qualities that are associated with this (ambition)
14
Q
what study confirmed Buss’s on partner preferences ?
A
- Dunbar and Waynforth
- study used 900 personal adverts from North American newspaper
- however, only within one culture so not representative of the whole population
15
Q
explain Clark and Hatfield’s study on differences in reproductive behaviours
A
- male and female students approached total strangers of the opposite sex on campus and made a suggestion of sex
- the three requests were: to go out with them that night, to go back to their house with them or to have sex with them
- 50% of men and women agreed to go out with them that night
- none of the women agreed to have sex with a stranger
- 75% of men agreed to have sex
16
Q
explain the research to support the claim that men tend to seek and desire a greater number of sexual partners than women
A
- Buss and Schmitt asked how many sexual partners people would want over the next two years, the next decade and during their lifetime.
- men would like 8 partners over the next two years compared to women’s 1 partner
- over a lifetime, 18 for men and 4-5 for women
17
Q
explain Buss’s study in differences in sexual jealousy
A
- asked male and female students to imagine their partner either having sex with someone else or in love with them
- they were wired up to measure stress response during this
- men become most distressed at the thought of their partner being sexually unfaithful
- women became most distressed at the idea of their partner in love with someone else
18
Q
what did Ellis and Symons discover about sexual fantasies and dreams
A
men are more likely to have sexual dreams than women, especially those involving multiple partners
19
Q
define anisogamy
A
the differences between male and female gametes
20
Q
explain Buller’s argument that female preference for high status men may not be universal
A
- studies attempting to determine female mate preferences have been carried out on female undergraduate students
- problem with class and age group. Sample doesn’t represent whole population
- these women expect to achieve high educational status and so have expectations of high income levels.
21
Q
problem with Buss’s study on partner preferences, counter argument and then another problem
A
- the results expressed preferences instead of what actually happens. This is a problem of self report
- however there is support for Buss from real life. A study of real marriages showed that from 29 cultures men do choose younger women
- consider social desirability of being asked how many partners would be desirable over different time periods. Answers may reflect the social construction of masculinity and femininity.
22
Q
explain the problem with partner preferences studies that they ignore social and cultural influences
A
- Bernstein points out that gender differences in mate preferences may result from cultural traditions rather than evolved characteristics
- e.g. the fact that women have been denied economic and political power in many cultures might account for their tendency to rely upon security and economic resources from men
- analysis showed that women valued mates with status and money for more in cultures where women’s status and opportunity were limited
23
Q
what is the research support for inter sexual selection from Clarke and Hatfield
A
- showed that female choosiness is a reality of heterosexual relationships
- male and female confederates approached other students on campus with the question ‘I have been noting you around campus, I find you to be very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?’
- not a single female agreed to the request
- 75% of males did
24
Q
what did Dion and Wheeler and Kim find out about physical attractiveness and stereotypes
A
- physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful
- this stereotype is also seen culturally. Wheeler and Kim found that Korean and American students judge physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, concerned for other people.
- the stereotype was just as strong in collectivist cultures as it is in individualist cultures
25
what is the matching hypothesis? Walster and Walster
- individuals do an evaluation of themselves
- they make a realistic choice on relationships
- realistic choices consider the individuals ideal and the likelihood of their acceptance
- most likely, they select the best candidates from those whose social desirability (physical attractiveness) equals their own
- by making realistic choices, individuals minimise rejection
26
3 pieces of research to support matching hypothesis
1. Murstein asked dating couples to rate their physical attractiveness, and asked independent judges to rate them. Found that real pairs were more similar in terms of physical attractiveness than random pairs
2. Silverman confirmed these findings in a field study. Noticed that the greater the degree of physical attractiveness, the more physical intimacy was displayed
3. Feingold carried out meta analysis of 17 studies. Found significant correlation in ratings of attractiveness between partners. Very valid and support of matching hypothesis as it looked at actual partners.
27
explain Walster's 'computer dance' to test the matching hypothesis
- a 'computer dance' was advertised for students at US university. 177 males, 170 females randomly selected from those with tickets
- when they collected tickets, 4 students rated each participant on physical attractiveness
- participants completed questionnaires to asses characteristic and told these would be used to allocate an ideal partner for the dance
- paring was actually done randomly
- during a break, participants completed questionnaires about their date
- found that participants responded more positively to physically attractive dates, regardless of their own physical attractiveness
- they were more likely to arrange dates with them
- results did not support matching hypothesis
28
one major ethical problem with the computer dance study
- deception
- participants didn't realise they were being rated on attractiveness
- didn't realise matching was actually done randomly as they were told their date would be there ideal partner
29
a reason why the computer dance study didn't confirm the matching hypothesis
- the measure of attractiveness was unreliable. The raters only had a few seconds to do so
- the design had reassured participants that they had been matched by computer, this would give false confidence in asking someone 'out of your league' for a date after the dance
- in life there are not such assurances. The set up was deceptive and not valid
30
Taylor's research to contradict the matching hypothesis
- studied the activity logs of online dating site for choices people made for real dates
- contrary to the matching hypothesis, online dangers sought meetings with people who were more physically attractive than them
- however, this may only be because it wasn't face to face so daters had more confidence
- although this may be different to how people behave in person, it does show the amount that physical attractiveness is placed on attraction
31
explain the individual differences that some people don't put much importance on physical attraction
- Towhey. Males and females asked to rate individual based on their photograph and biological info
- participants completed MACHO scale which measures sexist attitudes and behaviour
- those who scored high on the scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness of their target when judging like ability
- challenges that idea that physical attractiveness is the most important for potential partners
32
Define self disclosure
- the voluntary sharing of private aspects of the self with another person
- e.g. Personal info, experiences, feelings
33
Types of self disclosure
- self disclosure given and self disclosure received
- 'neutral'= preferences on music, films etc
- 'intense' = more personal. E.g previous sexual relationships
34
Explain sprecher's aim and procedure of experiment on self disclosure
- to investigate whether reciprocal self disclosure was more influential in determining attraction than one sided listening
- 156 IS undergraduates. Unacquainted pairs 2/3 female-female , 1/3 male-female
- self disclosure task over Skype. Reciprocal condition - took turns in asking and answering questions. Extended reciprocal condition - a number of questions were asked by one and answered by their partner, then they swapped roles.
- after each interaction, they were asses for liking, closeness, perceived similarity and enjoyment of their interactions
35
Explain Sprecher's findings and conclusion of his experiment on self disclosure
- those in the reciprocal condition reported more liking, closeness, perceived similarity and enjoyment of the interaction
- turn taking reciprocity more likely than extended reciprocity to lead to more positive outcomes
36
What was Miller and Collins research to support self disclosure
- supports idea that self disclosure plays important role in development and maintenance of relationships
- found that people who engage in intimate disclosures tend to be liked more than people who disclose at lower levels
37
Explain self disclosure on the internet
- been suggested that relationships on the internet involve higher levels of self disclosure and attraction than in face to face relationships
- explain by communication over the internet is often anonymous so people reveal more about themselves
- cooper and Sportolari 'boom and burst' . People reveal more about themselves so relationship becomes intense quickly (boom) but true knowledge of over person isn't there to support relationship so is hard to sustain. (Burst)
38
Explain why self disclosure may be greater in face to face rather than online
- Knoo challenges assumption that there is more self disclosure between people online
- studies showed that members of a social group disclosed personal info more often face to face than online
- this could be because of the lack of intimacy on the internet as a place for self disclosure
39
Explain the cultural differences in patterns of self disclosure
- in the west, people typically engaged in more intimate self disclosure than the non western
- Americans disclose more than the Chinese
40
explain kerckhoff and Davis study on filter theory
- longitudinal study of 94 student couples in short term relationships in US
- each partner completed 2 questionnaires. one to asses similarity of attitudes, 1 to asses complimentary of needs
- 7 months later they completed another questionnaire to asses how close they were compared to at the start of the study
- spilt them up into long term and short term relationships. Found that for short term couples (less than 18 months) similarity of attitudes was the most significant predictor of how close the were
- for long term couples (more than 18 months) complimentary of needs was predictive of how close they felt to their partner
- this study helped them determine the levels of filters which people apply when choosing a partner
41
explain social demography for filter theory
- variables such as age, social background, location
- determine the likeliness of individuals meeting in the first place
- this reduces the range of people that are available for us to meet -more likely to meet people from the same location for example
- we find these people more attractive because we have more in common with them
42
explain similarity in attitudes in filter theory
- an individual's psychological characteristics such as agreement on attitudes
- individuals who are very different from each other in terms of attitudes and values are considered not suitable so are filtered out from the field of possible long term partners
43
explain complimentary of needs from filter theory
- people who have different needs like each other because they provide each other with mutual satisfaction of these opposed needs
- e.g. they need to be caring and they need to be cared for
- Winch investigated 25 married couples in the US. suggested that social needs such as dominance should be complimentary rather than similar for a marriage to work. Those in long term relationships are attracted to those who's needs harmonise with their own
44
explain research support for the filter theory
- Gruber-Baldini did a longitudinal study
- found that participants of similar education level and age at the start of relationship were more likely to have a successful relationship
- this demonstrates the importance of sociodemographic factors like age and location
- is has face validity as people can relate to it and understand it
45
explain the weakness of filter theory that it is becoming less valid
- this is due to the development of technology.
- due to dating websites, sociodemographic factors are becoming less important as people nowadays are much more likely to develop relationships with people not in the same geographical location
46
explain the lack of research support for the filter theory
- Levinger failed to replicate Kerckhoff and Davis results
- he used 300 couples and followed the same procedure but there was no evidence for similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs influencing progress towards lasting relationships
- he suggested this was because the questionnaires in the original study were no longer appropriate due to changes in social values
47
explain the weakness of filter theory that complementarity of needs may not be that important
- Dijkstra and Barelds measured participants own personalities who were then asked to rate personality characteristics in an ideal mate.
- they found string correlations between individuals own personality and their ideal partners personality which supports the similar attraction hypothesis rather than the complementarity of needs one
48
Explain filter theory
- we choose romantic partners by using a series of filters that narrow down the 'field of availables' from which we might eventually make our choice
- during early stages of relationship demographics (class, religion) are most important in initiating a relationship
- as relationship develops , similarity of attitudes and values becomes more important
- assessing whether the partner is compatible I.e. Whether there personality traits complement the individual traits is most important
49
define social exchange theory
- the likelihood of a person staying in a relationship is determined by an assessment of what they get out of the relationship compared to what they put it
- and how the relationships measures up against what they expect
50
explain profit and loss for social exchange theory
- focuses on the rewards of a relationship against the cost of a relationship
- those with greater rewards are more likely to be satisfied with the relationship thus less likely to leave
- Thibaut and Kelly suggested that all social behaviour is a series of exchanges; individuals try to maximise rewards and minimise costs
- rewards (sex etc) minus the costs (financial investment etc) equals the outcome for that relationship. Commitment to a relationship is dependent on the profitability of this outcome
51
explain comparison level from social exchange theory
- used to judge whether someone offers something better or worse than we might expect from another
- standard against which our relationships are judged by
- our comparison level is a product of our experiences in other relationships together with our general view of what we might expect from this particular exchange
- if you have had previous unpleasant relationships then your comparison level will be low
52
explain comparison level for alternatives from social exchange theory
- a person weighs up a potential increase in rewards from a different partner minus any costs with ending the current relationship
- a new relationship can take place of the current one if its anticipated profit level is significantly higher
- an individual will be committed to their current relationship when the overall benefits and costs are greater than what might be possible in another relationship
53
explain Kurdek and Schmitt study on social exchange theory
- 185 couples including; heterosexual married couples, co habiting heterosexual couples, same sex male couples, same sex women couples
- each completed questionnaire without discussing answers
- for all of the couples greater relationship satisfaction was associated with; the perception of many benefits of the current relationship (comparison level) and seeing alternatives to the current relationship as less attractive (comparison level for alternatives)
54
two strengths of social exchange theory
1. Sprecher supports comparison level of alternatives. Longitudinal study of 101 dating couples at US university. They found that the most associated variable with relationship commitment was partners with comparison level for alternatives
2. Gottman found that in successful marriages the ratio of positive to negative exchanges were 5:1. in less successful marriages the ratio was 1:1 or less. This research has been used in the real world application of relationship therapy. The goal of Integrated Behavioural Couple Therapy was to increase the proportion of positive exchanges in a relationship. It helps partners to break the negative patterns of behaviour that cause problems
55
two weaknesses of social exchange theory
- it is difficult to establish what a cost and what a benefit is. Littlejohn suggested that a benefit now may at a later stage in the relationship be a cost
- there's a reliance on profitable outcomes and it ignore other factors that maintain a healthy relationship. An individual's own rational beliefs may make them more tolerant of a relatively low ratio of benefits to cost within the relationship
56
what is equity theory
- claims that people are most comfortable when what they get out of a relationship is equal to what they out into it
- the greater the equity, the greater the satisfaction
- if people feel over benefited they may feel guilty
- if people feel under benefited they may feel sadness
57
explain research support for equity in marriages
- Schafer and Keith surveyed hundreds of married couples and found that those who felt their marriages were inequitable was due to an unfair decision of domestic responsibilities
- during their child rearing years, wives often reported feeling under benefited whilst husbands felt over benefited
- during empty nest stages, husbands and wives were more likely to perceive equity
58
what do Hatfield and Rapson suggest about equity
- how couples are concerned with reward and equity depends upon the stage of their relationship
- during the early stages, fairness and equity are important
- once the couple becomes deeply committed to each other they become less concerned about daily rewards and equity
59
explain Stafford and Canary key study on equity theory
- interested in how equity and satisfaction predicted the use of maintenance strategies used in marriage
- 200 married couples completed measure of equity and relationship satisfaction. Each partner asked about their use of relationship maintenance strategies (assurances, sharing tasks, positivity)
- found that satisfaction was highest for partners who saw their relationship as equitable
- under benefited husbands reported lower levels of maintenance strategies compared to equitable it over benefited husbands
- shows that the relationship between equity and marital happiness is complimentary
60
explain the cultural differences in the importance of equity
- suggested that equity isn't as important in non western cultures
- most of the research has been carried out in the US and Western Europe
- Aumer-Ryan found that in all cultures people considered it important that a relationship is equitable
- both men and women in the US claimed to be in the most equitable relationships
- both men and women from Jamaica claimed to be in the least equitable relationships
61
explain the gender differences in the importance of equity
- suggested that men and women are not equally effected by inequity in relationships
- women see themselves as more under benefited in relationships compared to men
- women feel more guilt than men when feeling over benefited
- this could be down to the fact that women have greater relationship focus so they feel more sensitivity to injustices
62
explain Clark and Mills weakness of equity theory
- argue that we should differentiate between the role of equity in romantic relationships and other types of relationships e.g. business
- they found from a meta analysis that there is more evidence that equity is a deciding factor in non-romantic relationships with the evidence being more mixed in romantic relationships
63
supporting evidence for equity theory
- comes from animals studies
- Brosnan and de Waal found that female capuchin monkeys became very angry if they were declined grapes in return for playing a game, Shows how rewards are important in relationships
- use Stafford and Canary study as supporting evidence
64
What did Pew Research Internet Project find US
- 38% of single and looking for a partner have used online dating sites
- most apparent in the 20-40 age group
- from those dating sites - 66% have met up, 23% claim to have met a long term partner
- benefits =filtering, matching minorities
- weaknesses = deception and online bullying.
65
explain self disclosure in virtual relationships
- self disclosure is revealing personal information about oneself to another individual
- people will disclosure more in private messaging because of the increased control over disclosure to a selected individual.
- anonymity online means individuals will reveal more personal information as there is less fear of social embarrassment
- people are more selective over the content when self disclosing to a wider audience (e.g. posting on a public wall)
- Rubin's 'strangers on a train' phenomenon suggest that people disclose with the belief that there is no access to their social circle.
66
explain two factors which show that self disclosure is mediated by the factors that mediate face to face disclosure
Culture= research shown that US participants reported that greater disclosure in virtual relationships was associated with more trust, whilst Korean participants reported that greater disclosure leads to less trust
Individuals differences = Peter et al, found introverts were motivated to communicate online to compensate for their lack of social skills to make friends. Extroverts also disclosed more in virtual relationships but this was to help develop their relationships further
67
explain Hollenbaugh and Everett study in factors relating to self disclosure in blogs
- 154 responded to adverts on high traffic sites such as blogger.com and met criteria of being over 18, spoke English and posted on their blog at least once a month
- 5 blogs posted immediately before study were selected and analysed on hyperlinks, videos and pictures that were attached. Compared results to establish inter-rater reliability
- found that young bloggers disclosed more than older bloggers
- females disclosed more than makes
- bloggers who posted more pictures and videos (identifying themselves) disclosed more personal info
- shows that anonymity didn't promote online disinhibition
68
3 concerns about evidence for virtual relationships
- research hasn't discriminated between different types of intimacy and the effects these have in the degree of attraction an individual feels towards a partner
- Speed of development of social media. As research is being published its being out classed. Problem of temporal validity of research
- quality of communication has improved with real time use of webcam. Reduced anonymity
69
define gating
- features that prevent two people getting to know each other face to face
- e.g. attractiveness, age, mannerisms, ethnicity
70
what are the positive effects of the absence of gating in virtual relationships
-individuals are not held back by factors that may prevent them for having a face to face relationships.
71
explain the strength of virtual relationships that Facebook helps shy people have better quality friendships
- Baker and Orwell surveyed 207 male and female students about their shyness, Facebook usage and the quality of their friendships
- the found that this who scored high for shyness and greater use of Facebook were associated with higher perceptions of friendship quality
- in contrast, those who scored low for shyness, Facebook usage wasn't associated with perception of friendship quality
- this shows that shy individuals find particular value in virtual relationships
72
explain the strath if virtual relationships for Zhao
- suggested that online interactions empower 'gated' individuals to present the identities they wish to establish but are unable to establish in face to face situations.
- it gave them more confidence in every day life
- 'digital selves' can enhance the individuals overall self image and as a result may increase their chances to connect in their offline world
73
explain research from Rosenfeld and Thomas to support virtual relationships
- in a study of 4,000 US students they found that those with Internet access at home were more likely to be partnered compared to those who didn't haven't internet access. Of those 4,000 , 71.8% with Internet had a romantic partner and 35.9% of those without internet had a partner. Shows the importance of social media in forming and maintains relationships
- found no evidence to support the claim that Internet communication can only lead to superficial relationships. Found no difference in the quality of online vs offline relationships, nor did they find that online relationships were more fragile than offline relationships
74
weakness of virtual relationships on social media
- more people spending more time forming virtual relationships than those in real life
- less human intimacy and real life interaction
75
weakness with virtual relationships on social media
- the inability to verify who an individual is talking to and their status by their physical appearance. This can lead to misrepresentations with the consequence that relationships are formed and maintained on deception
- Cornwell and Lundgren surveyed 80 chat room users to find that 28% admitted to misrepresenting their physical appearance, 23% their age and 18% their background. Shows the widespread use of misrepresentation in virtual relationships.
76
a weakness of virtual relationships from Smith and Dubban
- reported that 54% of people using online dating sites believe they have been involved sign someone misrepresenting g
themselves. 28% have been contacted in a way that made them feel uncomfortable.
77
Explain the 4 parts of Rusbult's Investment model
1. Satisfaction (the positive vs negative emotions within a relationship. How well the relationship fulfils the persons needs
2. Comparison with alternatives (to what extent the person thinks their needs could be better fulfilled in another relationship or by not being in a relationship)
3. Investment (how much the person feels they have put into the relationship ( emotionally, in terms of time etc)
4. Commitment level ( the likelihood that a relationship will continue)
This results in relationship stability
78
Explain Le and Agnew's key study on the investment model of relationships
- meta analysis of 52 studies. Each study explored different components of the investment model. It produced a sample of 11,000 participants from 5 cultures.
- across all studies satisfaction level, quality of alternatives and investment size were highly correlated with commitment
- the correlation between satisfaction levels and commitment (0.68) was found to be significantly stronger than quality of alternatives and investment size to commitment.
79
What is the strength of Lew and Agnew's study on the investment model of relationships
- they found that satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment were all strong indicators of commitment to a relationship
- this importance was the same across cultures, genders, and it also applied to homosexual relationship ladies
80
Explain the strength of self report technique used within studies on the investment model of relationships
- many of those studies rely on self report technique
- this would be seen as a less reliable and over- subjective method in other areas
- but when looking at the amount an individual feels about how much they are commitment to their relationships, their own opinion and the value that they place on behaviours and attributes is more relevant than objective observations
81
Explain the problems in measuring the variables of the investment model
- it is difficult to measure commitment, satisfaction, investment size, an quality of alternatives
- Rusbult then developed the 'investment model scale' to overcome this. He showed this scale to be reliable and high in validity in the measurement of the variable. It is also suitable for different populations
82
Explain the real world application of the investment model of relationships
- it explains why individuals may perish in a relationship with and abusive partner
- it highlights features of the relationship that would explain why a victim of abuse might remain in the relationship
- they may for example lack alternatives and may have too much invested in the partner
83
Explain the weakness of the investment model of relationships that investment in the future is also important
- some psychologists think that Rusbult's idea is oversimplified
- Goodfriend and Agnew argue that it isn't just things we bring to the relationship that could count as investments, but also a couples plan for their future.
- in their view, partners will be committed to staying in the relationships because they want to see these plans happening.
- this suggest that investment in romantic relationships is a complex phenomenon, consisting of many different factors, which makes the investment model reductionist
84
What is relationship breakdown ?
When one partner becomes distress with the way the relationship is conducted
85
What is the first phase of Duck's phase theory
-the realisation that the person is no longer willing or able to stand this dissatisfaction
86
What is the second phase of ducks theory
- the intrapsychic phase
- the partner who is dissatisfied begins to consider whether they may be better off out of the relationship
- the feel resentment and a sense of being under benefited
- they may not verbally communicate this but may display it in other ways such as social withdrawal from their partner
87
What is the third phase of ducks theory
- the dyadic phase
- this is where individuals will confront their partners and discuss their feelings
- they are likely to feel a mix of guilt and anger
- couples become aware of the forces that bond them together (children) and the costs of being together (social and economic costs)
- this stage is where the couple may involve other people (e.g. Couple counselling)
- at this stage, the relationship could be saved if both parents come together to solve their issues
88
What is the fourth phase of ducks theory
- the social phase
- up to this point, the couple may have kept their dissatisfaction secret, but not if splits into family and friends
- this is a crucial psychological moment, as the distress experiences by one or both partners is public
- this makes it harder to deny the existence of a problem and therefore makes it harder to being about reconciliation
- others may take sides or give advice
89
Explain the final phase of ducks theory
- the grave-dressing phase
- having left the relationship, the partners try to justify their actions
- each partner must present themselves as trustworthy and loyal if they want to attract a new partner
- they each strive to construct a representation of the failed relationship that doesn't paint them in a bad light
- they each also re interpret their view of their ex partner.
90
Explain the weakness of ethical issues with ducks phases
- the research is very controversial as it is particularly sensitive and invasive
- individuals who partake are usually vulnerable and the research could cause emotional stress as they are trying to cope with a relationship breakup
- raises issues of confidentiality to
91
Explain the limitation that ducks phase theory fails to acknowledge the possibility of personal growth
- focuses on the negatives rather than the positives
- Rollie and Duck added a final phases of 'resurrection processes'
- this is an opportunity to move away from distress associated with the failed relationship and engage in personal growth
92
Explain the real work application of ducks phase theory
- implications for intervention strategies
- duck stresses the importance of communication during a breakup; he allows an outcome of reestablishing the relationship
- paying attention to things people say, the topics they discuss and the ways they talk about their relationship offers insight into how they are thinking about their relationship and it suggests appropriate interventions by friends and family
93
Surge the of ducks phase theory
- the end of a relationship can be stressful
- monroe found that students who experienced a breakup had a greater risk of developing a depressive disorder for the first time
- this shows that grave dressing is important for dealing with the after effect of a breakup
- the grave dressing phase allows individuals to create stories that play down their role in the break up, and so do not threaten their psychological wellbeing
94
define parasocial theory
an individual is attracted to another person (usually a celebrity) who is usually unaware of the existence of the person who has created the relationship
95
explain Giles and maltby's celebrity attitude scale
- found 3 levels of parasocial relationships that a person might have with a celebrity
1. Entertainment-social : fans who are attracted to celebrities follow them, meep up with them, watch and learn about them for entertainment. Giles and Maltby said most people will engage in a parasocial relationship but keep it at this level
2. intense-personal: this involves a deeper level of involvement and reflects the intensive and compulsive feeling about the celebrity. This is typical for teenagers who seem obsessed with every detail of their favourite celeb
3. borderline-pathological : the individual identifies with the celebs successes and failures. Characterised by over identification with the celeb and uncontainable fantasies about their lives. Interfere with persons functioning
96
define the absorption addiction model
when an individual becomes psychologically absorbed with a celeb to establish a sense of fulfilment. This can lead to more extreme behaviour to sustain the parasocail relationship
97
outline what McCutcheon did on the absorption addiction model
- she produced the model to explain parasocial relationships
- the reason why people create parasocail relationship is because of the lack of relationships in their own life
- relationships between an individual and a celeb are common as they require few demands e.g. there is no risk of rejection
- for some individuals, a difficult set of social circumstances and a lack of meaningful relationships may lead them to become increasingly absorbed by the celebs life
- it involves an 'effortless focusing in attention' which leads them to believe their relationship is speak
- if the level of absorption is high enough the individual will become addicted, leading the person to have more extreme behaviours
- this results in borederling-pathological
98
define the attachment theory
an explanation of the formation of an emotional bond between two people (infant and caregiver) . This is a two way process and leads to certain bye airs such as proximity seeking
99
explain the three parts of the attachment theory when applied to parasocial relationships
- a parasocial relationships is similar to 'real life' relationships due to attachment behaviours
1. proximity seeking : individual attempts to reduce the distance between themselves and their attachment figure. Fans will rearrange schedules to see them and attempt to contact them
2. secure base : an attachment figure provides a sense of security and a safe heaven . In a parasocial relationship there isn't a chance of rejection and the individual is able to create a secure base where they can explore there relationship in a safe way
3. protest at disruption : the main reason of an attachment May by due to prolonged distress following separation or loss of an attachment figure
100
explain what Cole and Leets found about attachment style
- explained why some people are more likely to develop parasocial relationships through the concept of attachment style. The willingness to have a PSR is linked to attachment beliefs
- insecure avoidant were most likely to enter a parasocial relationships. People turn to celebrities as a mean of satisfying their unrealistic needs
- avoidant attachment are less likely to enter a parasocial relationship; they find it hard to develop intimate relationships and therefore don't seek real life or parasocial relationships as much
101
explain research support in parasocial relationships from Schiappa
- meta analysis of studies that influenced the formation of parasocial relationships.
- found support for the assumption that people which high levels of PSR also watched more television.
- also shows that there was a significant positive relationship between the degree to which a person perceives tv characters as real and their tendency to form PSR
102
explain research support for parasocial relationships from Eyal and Cohen
- found evidence for a link between PSRs and intensity of loneliness experience in a parasocial break up
- from a sample of 279 students who were fans of the to series 'friends' , the intensity of their PSR with their favourite characters was the strongest predictor of their feelings of loneliness following broadcast of the final episode
103
another strength of parasocial relationship
- Maltby used the EPQ ( Eysenck personality questionnaire) to asses relationship between PSR level and personality
- found that whereas the entertainment- social level was associated with extraversion (sociable, lively), the intense-personal level was associated with neuroticism (emotional, moody)
- as neuroticism is related to anxiety and depression this provides a clear explanation of why PSRs are associated with poorer mental health
104
explain a weakness of PSRs
-Greenwood and Long found that individuals may develop PSRs as a way of dealing with feelings of loneliness or loss, but other research has found no relationship between intensity of loneliness and intensity of PSRs (Chory-Assad and Yanen)
105
explain the weakness from McCutcheon on PSRs
- used 299 participants to investigate the links between attachment types and attitudes towards celebrities.
- found no direct relationships between type of attachment and the likelihood that PSRs will be formed. Criticises Cole and Leeds and Cohen
- counter argument that Cohen found that those with anxious-ambivalently attached participants had the most negative responses to a questionnaire about their relationship with their favourite tv characters . Shows that PSRs is linked to attachment type
106
what is a weakness of Maltby's celebrity attitude scale (parasocial relationship)
- did a large scale survey and classified responses into three levels of behaviours and beliefs linked to relationships with celebs
- relied on self report
- this can often lack validity - whether this is due to accidental inaccuracies or the perception of the parasocial relationship by the participant or due to deliberate actions
