Relationships Flashcards
(70 cards)
1
Q
What is sexual selection?
A
This is selecting a mate based on desirable characteristics.
2
Q
What is anisogamy?
A
The way the gametes of the two sexes are dissimilar. Females gametes are eggs, which are large, static, produced once a moth, limited by age and costly with energy. Males gametes are sperm, which are small, mobile, produced in vast amounts and unlimited by age.
3
Q
What is sexual selection like for females?
A
There are differences between the sexes when competing. Females are choosy because of anisogamy. They want to sleet makes who are genetically fit, strong, healthy and attractive so these traits can be passed down to their children. They select males who are wealthy and have good resources so they can financially look after them. They test out males to make sure they will invest time, effort and resources, and the males won’t leave them.
4
Q
What is the sexy sons hypothesis?
A
Females select males with desirable traits because they want their sons to have sexy traits.
5
Q
What is sexual selection like for males?
A
Males compete with each other. They select many women to have lots of sexual selection; there will be a higher chance of them passing down their genes. They select women who are young, healthy and attractive with small waits, curvy hips and large breasts. They appear bigger and stronger to acquire and protect their females and ensure they have financial stability. The rely on mate guarding and fear cuckoldry.
6
Q
What is mate guarding?
A
When males guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else.
7
Q
What is cuckoldry?
A
When males are fearful their female partners will get pregnant by another male and they will have to raise another mans child.
8
Q
Advantages of the sexual selection theory. (3)
- short
- ratio
- poor
A
- childless males tend to be shorter which supports the idea that females sexually select tall males because they wish to reproduce tall, healthy males.
- a psychologist studied waist to hip ratios men preferred. The most attractive feature was the ratio of 0:7, which suggests small waist and wide hips are important.
- short term mating is beneficial for males and females as it is a chance to leave a poor quality relationship and women can select multiple partners and get more genetically diverse offspring.
9
Q
Disadvantages of sexual selection. (3)
- homosexuals
- pregnancy
- excuse
A
- it ignored homosexual couples and infertility people who cannot naturally reproduce. They do not sexually select to reproduce.
- short term mating can be costly for women because of unplanned pregnancies so they need to be choosy.
- being big and strong to acquire women can be used as an excuse for men to abuse this power and become possessive, aggressive or justify domestic violence.
10
Q
What is self disclosure?
A
The revealing of personal or intimate thoughts, feelings and information about ourselves. There needs to be sufficient trust so information will not be revealed to others.
11
Q
How does self disclosure affect attraction?
A
It is crucial for a developing relationship as people reveal more to people they like and like people who reveal more. Self disclosing people are seen as likeable, kind and trustworthy. Relationships develop through gradual increasing of self disclosure in breadth and depth. People expect reciprocal self disclosure; the same level of self disclosure as they give.
12
Q
What are the four things that need to be thought about when self disclosing?
A
- appropriateness- situation and timing is important. Person may be judged as lacking social skills.
- attributions did self disclosure- attraction reduces if information is self disclosed to everyone anyway.
- gender differences- females are better communicators and self disclose more but if they do too much males feel threatened. Females find it rewarding if a male self disclosed because it means the male trusts or likes her.
- content- self disclosing highly intimate information is inappropriate and violates norms especially in early stages. It decreases attraction as the other person feels threatened. Attraction is stronger when self disclosure is a balanced and medium level.
13
Q
Advantages of self disclosure. (3)
- first
- Japanese
- brother
A
- self disclosure on a first date is seen as inappropriate, attraction didn’t increase and the person seemed maladjusted.
- self disclosure was studied and was found to be high among Japanese and American students in romantic heterosexual relationships. It was high in same sex romantic and cross sex friendships.
- Big Brother viewers liked contestants who self disclose early but still preferred those who self disclosed gradually.
14
Q
Disadvantages of self disclosure. (2)
- physical
- internet
A
- other factors like physical attractiveness were ignored so attraction is not just reliant in self disclosure.
- relationships formed over the internet have more self disclosure and more attraction because people remain anonymous. They found the boom or bust theory where after early self disclosure relationships either boom (get intense very quickly) or bust (move too quickly and are difficult to sustain)
15
Q
What is the importance of physical attractiveness in a relationship?
A
For men it is important for short and long term relationships. These important cues are health, fertility, glossy hair, big eyes, small nose and reproductive value. For women it is more important for short term relationships. They value strong, big males with facial symmetry so genetic fitness. However this varies across cultures.
16
Q
What is the halo effect?
A
This suggests that physical attractiveness is an immediate and accessible way to rate partners. Physically attractive people create preconceived ideas about their personality; they are seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy. However these ideas are generally incorrect. People tend to behave positively towards them creating a self fulfilling prophecy. These people are more desired.
17
Q
Advantages of the halo effect. (2)
- dangerous
- areas
A
- physically attractive people were rated more politically knowledgable and competent but they had no expertise in public. This can be dangerous when it comes to choosing politicians.
- this idea applies to other areas of life like friendships, job interviews and meeting people for the first time.
18
Q
Disadvantage of the halo effect. (1)
- MACHO
A
- people had to rate how much they liked someone based on a photo and some biological information. They completed a MACHO scale which measures sexist attitudes and behaviour. They found those who scored highly we’re more influenced by physical attractiveness.
19
Q
What is the matching hypothesis?
A
This is when people seek partners that have the same social desirability as them. It suggests physical attractiveness is an accessible way to rate other people as potential dates. People first assess their own value, possible by rating themselves out if ten, then finding someone with the same rating. The best value person is someone in their league.
20
Q
What are the three types of matching in the matching hypothesis?
A
- preferences- when people prefer someone who is physically attractive
- realistic choices- when people approach someone of the same/similar rating as themselves to avoid rejection and insecurity
- reality- when people settle for attainable relationships so people in their league
21
Q
Advantages of the matching hypothesis. (2)
- correlational
- casual
A
- correlational studies support because they show that physical attractiveness is important in experimental and real life.
- couples who are engaged, married or in long term relationships follow the matching hypothesis more than casual daters
22
Q
Disadvantage of the matching hypothesis. (1)
- mismatching
A
- mismatching is when a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person because other traits make up for it. This is complex matching
23
Q
What is the filter theory?
A
This is filtering factors prominent at different stages of the partner selection process. It’s used to narrow down the ones available in the field to find the best fit.
24
Q
What are the three factors of the filter theory?
A
- social demography- social characteristics like age, ethnicity, social background, geographical location & likelihood of meeting
- similarity in attitudes- psychological characteristics like same attitudes and beliefs. This helps predict the stability of the couple especially ones 18 months or less, through self disclosure.
- complementarity of needs- emotional characteristics where if one person is missing something, the other should make up for it. They should be complementary not similar.
25
Advantages of the filter theory. (2)
- ethnic
- speed
- it was found that 85% of Americans married in 2008 are married to someone in the same ethnic group.
- in a speed dating even where people had to make quick decisions about attraction, the actual and perceived similarities were measured using a questionnaire. They found that perceived similarities predicted romantic liking more.
26
Disadvantages of the filter theory. (3)
- replicated
- convergence
- online
- out of 330 couples there was no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs is important. There were issued in decided what was long or short term.
- in a longitudinal study of cohabiting partners it was found that they became similar in attitudes and emotions over time. Attraction increased because of emotional convergence.
- in online dating there is a reduction in social demographic variables. It’s easier to meet people who live far away, with different ethnicities, social class and background.
27
What is the social exchange theory?
This is the idea of monitoring rewards, costs and profit. If a person is not satisfied they look for better deals because they want maximum rewards and minimal costs. They aim to negotiate to get what they want in a relationship. Rewards minus costs should have a positive outcome for the relationship to be successful. Comparison level (CL) is the idea that if there are higher rewards and less costs in the present relationship than the previous relationship, then it is successful. Comparison levels for alternatives (CL.alt) is when a person believes there’s higher benefit as lower costs in switching to a new partner.
28
Advantage of the social exchange theory. (1)
| - unsuccessful
- unsuccessful marriages had a lack of positive and excess of negative exchanges with the partner. The radio of positive to negative for unsuccessful marriages was 5:1 and for successful it was 1:1. Integrated couples therapy helps break negative and increase positive exchanges. There was 66% improvement after using this.
29
Disadvantages of the social exchange theory. (4)
- unsatisfying
- stay
- individualistic
- students
- people only monitor rewards and costs when their relationship becomes unsatisfying
- some have little rewards and many costs but still stay together like in domestic abuse relationships. Rewards and costs are subjective to the relationship and vary in importance.
- it is only applicable to western individualistic cultures. The perceived rewards and costs are different. In Africa, if they can help provide food then this is a rewards but in USA/UK buying jewellery is a reward.
- this research was based on students in short term relationships so the sample was limited.
30
What is the equity theory?
This is the idea that people expect to receive proportionate rewards as they give. It aims to achieve fairness and equity and it leads to distress if not achieved. If people under benefit then they become angry or sad. The imbalance of rewards can be tolerated if both parties are satisfied. Equity is the balance and stability of fairness.
31
What are the principles of the equity theory?
- profit- try to maximise rewards and minimise profits
- distribution- negotiation is needed to ensure fairness and that the relationship is successful. Compensations may occur.
- dissatisfaction- this is an unfair or inequitable relationship. There is stress and dissatisfaction for the disadvantaged.
- realignment- when they couple try and restore equity.
32
Advantages of the equity theory. (2)
- divorce
- monkeys
- in 1500 couples, if women were under benefitting, this resulted in a divorce. Equity is important for females as they are more honest and direct.
- female monkeys were angry us they were denied the prize of a grape for playing a game with the researcher especially if they saw other monkeys getting the prize for the same thing. They hurled food at them.
33
Disadvantages of the equity theory. (3)
- western
- progress
- quantified
- this is more applicable to western individualistic cultures as they are more concerned with equity. Eastern cultures value extending family network or family value more.
- there is no association between equity and whether the relationship will progress
- many rewards and costs are psychological and emotional and cannot be quantified or measured.
34
What is the investment model?
These are factors that affect the amount of commitment people put into their relationship and whether their relationship is likely to continue or not. Satisfaction levels, comparison or quality of alternatives and investment size all determine the commitment level, which determines whether the relationship will last or not.
35
What are satisfaction levels in the investment model?
These are positive or negative emotional experiences a person feels. They’re influences by the extent to which the partner fulfills and gratified their individual needs. These can be compared against previous relationships.
36
What is comparison or quality of alternatives in the investment model?
When the person thinks about whether their needs may be fulfilled better outside of the relationship. If there is an attractive alternative then the individual may leave their current relationship. If there isn’t then they may stay as there are no better options. The alternative option may be becoming single as this is better than staying in a poor quality relationship.
37
What is investment size in the investment model?
This contributes to stability and is the measure of the importance and extent of resources attached to the relationship that could be lost. Investments are strong foundations for the future and may be costly if broken. It is a psychological force that motivates people to continue their relationship as they put in time and effort. Intrinsic investment is direct investment like money, energy and emotions. Extrinsic investment is not present at the start but had developed over time like children or shared memories.
38
What is commitment levels in the investment model?
This is whether the relationship will persist and continue. High commitment means both people are happy and the relationship will continue and survive. It should involve equity.
39
Advantages of the investment model. (3)
- Taiwan
- infidelity
- homosexual
- students from Taiwan and the Netherlands were studied it was found that commitment levels were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size.
- this explains why infidelity may occur. Low quality of alternatives and low satisfaction means less commitment. In abusive relationships, there is low satisfaction but they don’t leave because there is low quality of alternatives and high investment size.
- homosexual couples took the investment model scale questionnaire and they found that all factors were important for commitment. This was the same for heterosexual marital relationships.
40
Disadvantages of the investment model. (2)
- desirability
- gender
- this is difficult to measure. They were tested using self reports which means social desirability may have affected the results.
- this ignores gender differences, females have higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investment sizes and stronger commitment.
41
What is Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown?
This is the process of breakdown when one partner becomes dissatisfied.
42
What are the stages of ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?
- intrapsychic processes
- dyadic processes
- social processes
- grave dressing processes
43
What is the intrapsychic process of Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?
This is when the person privately thinks about the relationship. They focus on the partners faults and them under benefitting so they re evaluate the relationship. They may feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions. However they don’t say anything to the person.
44
What is the dyadic processes of Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?
This is a private confrontation or discussion where the partners communicate about the problems or inequalities. They may think carefully about their investments. There could be reconciliation like marital therapy.
45
What is the social processes stage of Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?
This is when the breakup is made public. The problem is harder to deny or ignore. Advice or support may be given and alliances may be made. This may involve criticising or scapegoating.
46
What is the grave dressing stage of Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?
This is when the relationship dies and breaks down. They may need to mourn or justify. They begin their post relationship lived and begin to publicise their accounts of the breakdown. Stories about betrayal, struggle and different interpretations may be told. They may reinterpret their view of their ex.
47
Advantages of Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown. (2)
- resurrection
- exchange
- a fourth stage has been identified, which is the resurrection stage. This is involves personal growth and when they get prepared for new romantic relationships. For 92 undergraduates who had just broken up with their partners experienced emotional distress but there was evidence of personal growth.
- social exchange theory
48
Disadvantages of Ducks phase model of relationship breakdown. (3)
- initiate
- ethical
- reductionist
- roles need to be considered. Those who didn’t initiate the end of the relationship were the most lonely, miserable, depressed and angry. Those who did were the least stressed or upset but they were guilty.
- there are some ethical issues like psychological harm from recalling the breakdown and invasion of privacy. However they ensure confidentiality and anonymity.
- it is reductionist because relationships are usually unpredictable
49
What is anonymous self disclosure in virtual relationships?
It is easier to self disclose on the internet as there are less judgements and it is not face to face. This means physical attraction doesn’t matter and rejection is not so severe. Also they may not see the person again.
50
What is the reduced cues theory?
Virtual relationships lack cues usually present in face to face relationships. These may include physical appearance, emotional state, facial expressions and tone of voice. Deindividuation is the reduced sense of identity, encouraging disinhibition which is when a person is more comfortable saying negative or hurtful things. This involves more blunt and aggressive comments which reduces self disclosure. People feel uncomfortable revealing sensitive information if they are met by hostility or ridicule.
51
Advantage of the reduced cues theory. (1)
| - separate
- the online and the offline world are separate and most relationships involve both.
52
Disadvantages of the reduced cues theory. (2)
- other
- strong
- people may use other cues like style or timing of the message that makes up for physical cues
- there is not evidence that virtual relationships are more fragile than face to face relationships. They can be just as strong.
53
What is the hyper personal model.?
Self disclosure tends to occur quickly and early in virtual relationships and can become intimate or intense quickly. They also tend to end quickly once the excitement and interaction is not matched by enough trust. This allows people to have more time to manipulate their online personality. Selective self presentation is when people portray themselves in the most positive and idealised way which is fake.
54
Advantages of the hyper personal model. (2)
- questions
- cat fishing
- questions asked in online discussions are very direct, probing and intimate. In face to face there is small talk.
- cat fishing supports this as people completely change their identities to deceive others.
55
Disadvantage of the hyper personal model. (1)
| - separate
- the online and offline world aren’t separate. Most relationships involve both.
56
What is gating?
This creates barriers for less attractive and socially inept people who regard relationships more identity important. Personal factors such as physical appearance and mannerisms determine who we approach. People use these available features to categorise potential partners. Online relationships have an absence of these barriers pms limiting opportunities.
57
How does the absence of gating affect online relationships?
The anonymity of the internet gives the option to stretch the truth and increase social desirability. Social networks empower gated individuals to lie. Examples of gates are physical unattractiveness, stammer or social anxiety. Relationships can develop to a point where self disclosure is more frequent and deeper. People are free to create online identities.
58
Advantages of the absence of gating. (3)
- catfishing
- personality
- intimacy
- catfishing supports this
- this causes people to base their relationships off of the personality of the person not just looks.
- it was found that the intimacy of a relationship developed more quickly in virtual relationships because of a lack of gating features.
59
Disadvantages of the absence of gating. (2)
- desirability
- gender
- most research uses self reports which cause social desirability.
- gender differences are ignored. Females value physical attractiveness in only short term relationships.
60
What are parasocial relationships?
These are one sided relationships where one person expends considerable emotional energy, interest and time, and the other person is completely unaware. A celebrity may become a meaningful figure in their life and the persuasiveness of the media makes these more realistic. Feelings generally grow stronger with subsequent encounters over time.
61
Why do parasocial relationships develop?
They may form because of a lack of a relationship in their own life, shyness or loneliness, these relationships make few demands and there is no criticism or rejection.
62
What are the levels of a parasocial relationship?
- entertainment-social- this is the least intense. Celebrities are viewed as sources of entertainment and a fuel for social interaction
- intense-personal- this is intermediate level. It reflects a greater involvement, frequent obsessive thoughts and intense feelings and consider them to be a soulmate.
- borderline-pathological- this is the strongest level. This features uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. This might include spending a large sum of money on the celebrity or willing to perform illegal acts for them.
63
Advantages of parasocial relationships.(2)
- younger
- training
- younger people are mor likely to develop parasocial relationships because they are less involved in face to face relationships and spend more time on media.
- media training should be recommended in schools to highlight the dangers of idolising disorders like extreme dieting.
64
Disadvantages of parasocial relationships. (3)
- education
- questionnaires
- correlations
- a persons level of education may affect the likelihood of them being in a parasocial relationship. Educated people see celebrities as less educated and less worthy of positive regard.
- this is generally tested using questionnaires which could cause social desirability.
- correlations may also be used but these don’t show cause and effect and results could be affected by a third unknown variable.
65
What is the absorption addiction model?
This is when the persons fascination with a celebrity progresses from a simple admiration to delusional. They may seek a more intense parasocial relationship to fill the dissatisfaction they feel. They may hope to absorb some success as this allows them to escape reality. It becomes addictive, extreme, bordering abnormal and they may show criminal behaviours like stalking. Absorption is seeking fulfilment like becoming preoccupied or focus as much if attention as possible on celebrity. Addiction is the need to sustain by feeling a stronger and closer involvement which is delusional.
66
What is the celebrity worship syndrome? (CWS)
This is the fascination with the lives of the rich and famous where it becomes addictive and crosses the border from harmless to an abnormal obsession. This could develop into mentally disordered behaviour like delusions or stalking.
67
How does the attachment theory relate to parasocial relationships?
Insecure resistant are more likely to form parasocial relationships. They need to have their unfulfilled needs met and there is no threat of rejection, break up or disappointment. Insecure avoidant have trust issues and try to avoid pain and rejection. Securely attached people develop loving, two way relationships in real life.
68
How does attachment behaviour link to parasocial relationships?
- proximity seeking- they attempt to reduce the distance so are likely to stay informed about the celebrity, rearrange their schedule around them and may attempt to contact them.
- secure base- there is a sense of security so they can explore the world. There is little chance of rejection so it is a safe way to explore other relationships.
- protest at disruption- this is prolonged separation after separation or loss of attachment figure, e.g raw emotions were expressed when Jeremy Clarkson left Top Gear.
69
Advantages of the attachment theory in relation to parasocial relationships. (2)
- Potter
- link
- in Germany there was high loyalty towards Harry Potter and in Mexico there was a nature of involvement in a social group. These were similar patterns of people in parasocial relationships.
- this links to the Strange Situation by Ainsworth and Bowlby’s monotropic theory
70
Disadvantages of the attachment theory in relation to parasocial relationships. (3)
- mild
- desirability
- certain
- there has been no link found between childhood attachment styles and mild celebrity worship
- these are generally tested using self reports which cause social desirability.
- it doesn’t link attachment styles to certain behaviour of parasocial relationships.
