Reliability/Validity Terms

Question 1

Reliability definition

Answer 1

The consistency of a measure

Question 1

3 types of reliability

Answer 1

internal consistency, stability, equivalence

Question 2

Internal consistency

Answer 2

correlation of single item to the total scale/measure of how well a set of items on a test or survey are measuring the same thing/construct / a measure of internal consistency

Question 3

Split half reliability

Answer 3

divide questions in half into 2 groups (odd numbered/even numbered), calculate score for each half, and compare both halves to determine correlation

Question 4

Cronbach’s Alpha

Answer 4

Average of al possible split half reliabilities / how closely related a set of items are as a group by comparing the amount of shared variance among the items to the amount of overall variance

three or more response options

Question 5

Kuder Richardson Coefficient

Answer 5

Average of all possible split-half reliabilities where each question only has 2 answers

Question 6

Test-Retest Reliability

Answer 6

part of stability – giving identical measure to the same group of participants after time has passed

Question 7

Interrater Reliability

Answer 7

Part of equivalence: Do multiple raters agree on ratings?

Question 8

Alternate forms of reliability

Answer 8

Part of equivalence: administer more than one form of a test to the same people - check to see if the forms are equivalent

Question 9

Validity

Answer 9

does the scale measure what it is supposed to measure?

Question 10

content validity

Answer 10

does the instrument assess all aspects of the construct and exclude irrevelant issues? e.g. an awe scale w/ good content validity would cover both aspects and exclude irrelevant concepts

Question 11

face validity

Answer 11

A type of content validity: does the test measure what it appears to measure?

Question 12

criterion validity

Answer 12

how well a measure correlates with an established measure of comparison (criterion)

Question 13

what are 2 ways to assess criterion validity?

Answer 13

concurrent and predictive validity

Question 14

Concurrent validity

Answer 14

does the measure relate to other measures that assess the same thing (does a new measure of gratitude relate to other measures of gratitude)

Question 15

Predictive validity

Answer 15

does the measure predict future behavior?

Question 16

construct validity

Answer 16

how well does the scale measure the underlying concept?

Question 17

What’s the first way to assess construct validity?

Answer 17

Convergent/divergent validity

Question 18

2nd way to assess construct validity?

Answer 18

factorial validity

Question 19

3rd way to assess construct validity?

Answer 19

Discriminant validity

Question 20

convergent/divergent validity

Answer 20

is the measure related (convergent) or unrelated (divergent) to other constructs as one would expect? e.g. A new measure of gratitude is positively related to positive affect and unrelated to intelligence

Question 21

Factorial validity

Answer 21

Factor analysis shows whether items measure construct in a coherent way – identifying underlying factors/patterns that influence observed variables - group together highly correlated variables - identifying cluster of items tend to be answered the same way

Question 22

Discriminant validity

Answer 22

Discriminate between groups of people as expected
e.g. A measure of depression distinguishes between those diagnosed with depression and those who have not

Question 23

Snowball Sample

Answer 23

Current participants help to recruit new ones from acquaintainces/Useful when population members are hard to locate/Hard to make inferences about population

Question 24

Random Sample

Answer 24

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Question 25

Stratified random sample

Answer 25

Individuals selected randomly within each strata (subgroup) of importance e.g. E.g. divide Skidmore students into first year, sophomore, junior, and senior and randomly select within each subgroup

Question 26

Convenience Sample

Answer 26

Selecting your sample based upon convenience – participants are readily accessible/ but Sample may not be representative of the population!!

Question 27

Who launched positive psychology?

Answer 27

Martin Seligman (APA president from 1997-1998)

Question 28

What does PERMA stand for?

Answer 28

Positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, accomplishments

Question 29

Who are the stoic philosophers who were the forerunners of PP/what did they believe in?

Answer 29

Xeno of Citium and Epictetus

Question 30

Who built the Early psychological foundations?

Answer 30

William James, Carl Jung, Abraham Maslow, carl Rogers, Victor Frankl

Question 31

Differences between positive/humanistic psychology?

Answer 31

PP: - Seligman argues it has a stronger empirical basis - Prefers quantitative research over qualitative - Focuses on self and collective well-being/how people flourish in adversity - Helping people discover and nurture strengths - Outcome - focused HP: - Ignores research on humanistic approaches - Prefers qualitative research over quantitative research - Greater focus on self (according to seligman)/quality of experiences - Helping people achieve their potential - Process-oriented

Question 32

Definition of Awe

Answer 32

Awe is the feeling of being in the presence of something vast that transcends your current understanding of the world (keltner, 2023 page 7 of eight wonders reading)

Question 33

Components of Awe?

Answer 33

Vastness and accommodation/transcendence

Question 34

Benefits of awe?

Answer 34

- Promotes generosity - Strengthens positive emotions - Increasing life satisfaction - Lower stress - Enhances immune system

Question 35

Dark Side of Awe

Answer 35

negative/terrifying experiences producing awe – Hiking up a very steep mountain – scary because it’s so high-up but the views are beautiful - If someone did something cruel - Natural disasters – tsunami, earthquakes, forest fires - Deep ocean and creatures - Terminal diagnoses - Mass violence - A long-term relationship - Negative awe can be helpful/harmful!

Question 35

Non self report ways to measure awe

Answer 35

Observer report (Ask others (family, friends, colleagues) to provide ratings) Facial measures (Code for facial cues using a standardized system (Facial action Coding system)) Physiological measures - heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, skin conductance Neuroimaging - FMRI

Question 36

Self report measures for awe

Answer 36

Self-reports / scales / surveys – the most accurate Physiological measures like heart rate, eye-tracking (Don’t know if your measuring awe… but accurate way to measure) Neuroimaging Change in facial expressions Showing someone pictures, videos on a vast screen – to measure awe and beauty – compare small versus big screens

Question 37

Pros and cons of self report measures

Answer 37

Advantages – not very hard to do, deliver your reaction/survey, not expensive - practical logistical reasons Rich data Cons - biased, may not give honest answers due to not being comfortable, put down what the researcher wants to hear

Question 38

What was the Likert type measure/scale and who was it developed by?

Answer 38

Likert Type Measures - developed in 1932 by Rensis Likert for doctoral dissertation Rating scale to assess thoughts, feelings, behaviors Respondent given a range of options on dimensions such as: - How strongly they experience the emotion - How frequently they experience the emotion - Level of agreement with the statement

Question 39

Factors to consider when making the scale

Answer 39

Number of Questions: How many questions do you want your scale to have?

Question 40

Pros/cons of using a single item measure?

Answer 40

Pros: simple/fast to administer, works if construct is a single dimension, narrow in scope, unambiguous, concrete Cons: doesn’t assess construct in a comprehensive way / small wording changes or features of response options can bias responses / more items, any idiosyncratic responses will wash out / not sufficient for complex and/or abstract constructs/can’t use it for a bigger concept

Question 41

For most constructs in positive psychology, multiple item measures are preferable

Answer 41

TRUE

Question 42

What is the minimum number of items needed for internal consistency?

Answer 42

At least 4 items needed

Question 43

How does the number of items impact reliability?

Answer 43

Reliability increases above 5 but each additional item makes less impact if scale is too long, participants may struggle with focus/refuse to complete

Question 44

How many items is sufficient for most constructs in final scale?

Answer 44

around 5-7 items -- may want to create twice as many items in initial survey

Question 45

Number of points on rating scale? (anchors)

Answer 45

Between 5-7 scale points are optimal

Question 46

Over what time period do you want participants to reflect upon?

Answer 46

Retrospective reports: Remember your thoughts, feelings over past month, week, day Present moment: - How do you feel at this moment in time - Experience sampling methodology (ESM) or Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) - Send signals periodically (through cell phone) prompting people to respond to the survey - ESM - research technique that asks participants to fill out questionnaires multiple times a day over a period of days - goal is to capture real-time data about thoughts/feelings Also known as EMA - used interchangeably - goal of both methods is to reduce recall bias and enhance ecological validity

Question 47

Do you want all items to be worded in the same direction or include some worded in the opposite direction?

Answer 47

Same direction?

Question 48

item clarity: are your items clear and easy for all participants to understand?

Answer 48

Item wording: - Clear, short (no more than 20 words), unambiguous, written at about a 6th grade vocabulary level, simple rather than compound sentences, relevant to the construct being measured, matters of opinion rather than factual Items for scales should: - Cover the entire range of affect or opinion

Question 49

Avoiding double negatives

Answer 49

2 negatives in the same sentence e.g. “I am not unsatisfied” // “I am not without any anxiety”

Question 50

Avoid double barreled items!

Answer 50

items that ask more than one question but allow for only one answer e.g. “I am sad and anxious” – could be both or sad and not anxious

Question 51

Avoid leading questions

Answer 51

items that may prompt participants to respond a certain way! e.g. “The majority of people state they are happy. How often are you happy?”

Question 52

Who coined the term eugenics in 1883?

Answer 52

Francis Galton (cousin of charles darwin)

Question 53

What was Galton's pseudoscientific theory?

Answer 53

that humans could be improved through “selective breeding” (breeding organisms with specific traits to produce offspring with more desirable characteristics)

Question 54

Why was this theory controversial?

Answer 54

Rooted in prejudiced ideas on race, class, gender —- overemphasized heredity

Question 55

Racism in psychological testing: who formed the stanford binet intellgience tests in 1916?

Answer 55

Lewis Terman

Question 56

Why were these IQ tests controversial?

Answer 56

Differences across groups used to justify segregated schools - identify children with learning difficulties and find children with above IQ to place people in certain placements World war 1: - Testing used to discriminate against people of color and immigrants

Question 57

Who was Arthur Jensen?

Answer 57

father of modern racism Argued IQ was hereditary and certain racial groups performed consistently worse on these tests and these differences indicated a natural hierarchy of intelligence, implying some races were superior to others - misinterpreted IQ as a fixed measure of worth/promoted stereotypes about racial capabilites Jensen was responsible for resurrecting the idea that the black population is inherently and immutably less intelligent than the white population, an ideology that immediately became known as “jensenism.” Jensen promoted eugenics as the only practical solution to the problems facing the black community, arguing that they lacked the intelligence necessary for compensatory education programs to be successful. “[T]here are intelligence genes, which are found in populations in different proportions, somewhat like the distribution of blood types. The number of intelligence genes seems to be lower, over-all, in the black population than in the white.

Question 58

Who was in support of racist laws:

Answer 58

Henry Garrett (former APA president in 1946) provided courtroom testimony in support of segregation in 1952 1967 - testified in opposition to civil rights atc

Question 59

limited opportunities: from the top 6 journals from 1974-2018, what percent of editors were people of color?

Answer 59

5% People of color have historically been underrepresented in psychological research

Question 60

Access to Mental Health Care:

Answer 60

In US, people of color are: - diagnosed with more severe disorders - Less likely to receive quality mental health care - Experience more barriers to receiving mental health treatment

Question 61

MLK Jr. speech to APA

Answer 61

Spoke at APA in 1967 - Outlined science’s responsibility to draw attention to systemic racism - Notion of adjustment cannot be separated from oppressive social structures

Question 62

Mindfulness based stress reduction (empirically supported)

Answer 62

Founded by John Kabat Zinn Goal was to make helpful buddhist teachings and practices available to mainstream U.S Buddhist roots were briefly acknowledged Mindfulness framed in secular ways (non-religious ways) to appeal to larger audience like hospitals and clinics - less focus on spiritual roots

Question 63

Sampling Strategies: Pros of PS 101 participant pool

Answer 63

- Helps support many research projects at universities - Learning experience for students - better appreciation for the scientific process - Can make contribution to the discipline they are studying

Question 64

Ethical considerations of PS 101 participant pool

Answer 64

- Are students able to participate voluntarily or are they being coerced? - Are there any consequences from withdrawing? - What are the methodological limitations of using PS 101 students?

Question 65

WEIRD participants

Answer 65

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

Question 66

Is positive psychology WEIRD

Answer 66

Hendricks et al 2019 Overview/Method - Searched for randomized Clinical Trial (RCT) studies on positive psychology interventions between 1998-2017 - Included 187 articles in the study Results Majority of studies (78%) conducted in western studies Majority of studies conducted in countries classified as industrialized (71%) highly educated (71%), high income (71%), and democratic (63%) Increase in publications from Non-Western countries since 2012 Trend toward globalization of positive psychology research

Question 67

WEIRD participants

Answer 67

2008 study of top psychology journals - 96% of participants from Western Industrialized Countries Describes only 12% of population Researchers often mistakenly assume their results can generalize Differences found between western and non western individuals with variety of psychological constructs

Question 68

What's a representative sample?

Answer 68

Participants in the sample are similar on key characteristics to those in the population