religion 2

Question 1

how much did paganism remain in Europe by 900 ad

Answer 1

context christianity
extent of Christian control
forms pagan persistence after official conversion
regional examples
challenges to complete conversion
hist perspectievs

Question 2

paganism remianed- context christianisation 900 ad

Answer 2

• Christianity had been spreading steadily since the late Roman Empire.
• By 900 AD, formal conversion of kings and elites was largely accomplished across Western and Central Europe.
• Church institutions, bishoprics, and monasteries were well-established.
• Christian rulers increasingly claimed divine right and linked kingship to Christian sacral authority.

Question 3

forms pagan persistence

Answer 3

rural and popular religion
burial practices
syncretism and hybrid practices

Question 4

hybrid

Answer 4

• Hybrid practices were common, where Christian symbols were combined with pagan ones:
  o Crosses with runic inscriptions.
  o Christian saints identified with pagan gods in local popular religion.
• Monasteries sometimes tolerated or reinterpreted pagan festivals to ease conversion.

Question 4

burial practices

Answer 4

• Pagan burial customs (e.g., grave goods, cremation) persisted in some areas well into the 10th century.
• Scandinavian sites show a mixture of pagan and Christian burials for generations.- ship burials
• In Anglo-Saxon England, pagan elements persisted especially in folk graves outside churchyards.

Question 5

rural and popular religion

Answer 5

• Christianity spread top-down via elites and institutions, but rural populations often retained folk beliefs.
• Pagan deities, spirits, and nature worship survived covertly.
• Evidence from folklore, place-names, festivals, and burial customs shows continuation of older beliefs.
  o Example: Sacred groves, wells, and trees continued to be venerated.
  o Many Christian festivals were built upon or replaced pagan seasonal festivals (e.g., Yule → Christmas).

Question 6

specific regional examples

Answer 6

Scandinavia
england
eastern europee

Question 7

eastern europe

Answer 7

• Baltic tribes (Latvians, Lithuanians) remained pagan well into the 13th century.
• Slavic paganism was still the dominant religion in many areas c. 900 AD.
• Christian missions to convert Poles, Czechs, and Rus’ were ongoing and often met resistance.

Question 8

england pagan

Answer 8

• Christianisation from late 6th century, but Anglo-Saxon paganism persisted in folk culture.
• Pagan motifs appeared in art and literature (e.g., Beowulf).
• Witchcraft and magic, often rooted in older beliefs, remained widespread.
  green men

Question 9

scandinavia regional exampels

Answer 9

• Denmark: Harald Bluetooth’s baptism c. 965 marks official conversion, but paganism persisted in rural areas.
• Norway and Sweden: Pagan kings and practices continued into the late 10th and early 11th centuries.
• Archaeological evidence (e.g., ship burials, pagan temples) coexists with emerging Christian churches.
• Pagan sacrifices and ritual sites like Uppsala remained influential.

Question 10

challenges to complete conversion

Answer 10

• Geographic isolation: Remote rural and frontier regions were difficult for missionaries to reach.
• Political instability: Frequent warfare, shifting allegiances, and pagan rulers slowed Christian consolidation.
• Cultural resilience: Pagan religion was deeply tied to local identity, kinship, and the land.
• Syncretism: Christianity adapted pagan customs to encourage acceptance, thus blurring boundaries.

Question 11

gustoriographical perspectives

Answer 11

• Earlier historians: Sometimes saw conversion as rapid and total, with paganism “vanishing” after elite baptism.
• Modern scholarship (e.g., Anders Winroth, Peter Brown):
  o Emphasizes gradual, negotiated conversion.
  o Recognizes pagan survivals and syncretism as norm rather than exception.
  o Argues conversion was a long process extending well beyond 900 AD.
• Archaeology and environmental studies have revealed continuity of pagan ritual sites alongside churches.l

Question 12

local pilgrimages

Answer 12

st Felix of Nola
st peter and Paul

Question 13

st Felix of Nola

Answer 13

Nola, Campania (Italy)
- Venerated in the 4th century; mentioned by Paulinus of Nola, who describes pilgrimages to Felix’s tomb.
- Important example of early saint cult around relics, drawing local and regional pilgrims.
- Paulinus hosted visitors and composed poems celebrating Felix’s miracles.
- 📖 Paulinus of Nola, Carmen 27: “The roads are crowded, the people come in crowds… to the sacred day of blessed Felix.

Question 14

st peter and st paul

Answer 14

– Rome
- The apostolic tombs in Rome remained central pilgrimage sites throughout this period.
- Peter’s tomb at the Vatican especially attracted emperors, bishops, and lay pilgrims.
- Pilgrimages to Rome were also political: used to seek favour from the pope or obtain relics.
- Sites like the Catacombs, Lateran, and San Paolo fuori le Mura also featured in itineraries.
- 📖 Itinerarium Einsidlense (c. 8th c.): a pilgrim guide listing churches and saints’ sites in Rome.

Question 15

definition of saint

Answer 15

person believed to be especially holy, virtuous, and close to God, whose soul resided in heaven and who could intercede on behalf of the living — particularly through their relics, tomb, or memory.”- matyrs, confessors, royal sints (king Oswald Northumbria), missionary saints, bishops and monks

Question 16

political transactions

Answer 16

lousy the pious- st Sebastian to soissons
st alexander- rome to saxony

Question 17

Louis the pious

Answer 17

(r. 814–840)
* Continued and expanded his father’s policies.
* Promoted translation of relics to consolidate ecclesiastical networks loyal to the emperor.

Question 18

st sebastian to soissons

Answer 18

(826)
* Louis had relics of the Roman martyr St Sebastian translated to Saint-Médard de Soissons, which he patronised.
* This bolstered Soissons’ status and Louis’s claim to religious authority.

Question 19

st alexander translation

Answer 19

Rome → Wildeshausen, Saxony)
* Relics of Roman martyrs were sent to newly Christianised Saxon churches to replace pagan sites and stabilise Carolingian control.

Question 20

papal authority outside rome, goes limits

Answer 20

nature and forms papal influence
early papal authority
papal-frankish alliance and expansion
Carolingian period and doctrinal authority
geographical reach- latin west and its limits
constraints on papal power
hist perspective

Question 21

loa how far could popes. influence beyond rome

Answer 21

Influence was real but indirect, episodic, and contingent — greatest when supported by strong rulers (e.g. Carolingians).

Question 22

loa was papal power limited to latin west

Answer 22

Yes — in theory universal, in practice confined to Latin Christendom; resisted in the East and variably received even within the West.

Question 23

hist perspectives papacy

Answer 23

Walter ullmann
mckitterick
Markus
nobel

Question 24

ullmann

Answer 24

Emphasised the rise of papal theocracy, especially post-Gregory I.

Question 25

mckitterick

Answer 25

Stressed the role of Carolingians in shaping and enabling papal authority.

Question 26

markus

Answer 26

Saw early popes more as moral and pastoral leaders than political rulers.

Question 27

noble

Answer 27

Papal power depended heavily on the myth of Rome and its apostolic legacy rather than real administrative control.

Question 28

forms papal influence

Answer 28

* The papacy claimed spiritual and doctrinal primacy based on: o Succession from St Peter, the "prince of the apostles" o Custodianship of orthodoxy and church unity * In practice, influence was: o Doctrinal: arbitration in theological disputes o Symbolic: papal blessing legitimised bishops and kings o Liturgical and missionary: guidance on practices, support for conversions

Question 29

lacking papal inlfuence

Answer 29

o An imperial administrative apparatus outside Rome o Capacity to enforce rulings consistently without secular support

Question 30

early papal authority

Answer 30

🧔 Pope Leo I (r. 440–461) 🧔 Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604)

Question 31

pope Leo I

Answer 31

r. 440–461) * Asserted universal spiritual authority (e.g. Tome of Leo at Chalcedon 451). * Argued bishops everywhere were under Rome’s doctrinal oversight. * Influential in Gaul and Spain via correspondence and intervention. o E.g. conflict with Hilary of Arles, backed by Emperor Valentinian III in 445, who issued a rescript affirming Roman primacy.

Question 32

pope gergori I

Answer 32

* Managed extensive correspondence (Registrum Epistolarum) with bishops in Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Dalmatia, and North Africa. * Supported Augustine’s mission to Anglo-Saxon England (597). * Promoted Benedictine monasticism and liturgical uniformity.

Question 33

pope Gregory however

Answer 33

o Avoided routine interference in episcopal affairs. o Exerted influence through persuasion, not coercion.

Question 34

papal-frankish aliance and expansion

Answer 34

8thc conetxt pope Stephen ii donation of constantine

Question 35

context papal frankish alliance and expanison

Answer 35

* Papacy isolated by Byzantine iconoclasm and threatened by the Lombards. * Abandoned reliance on Byzantium and turned to Frankish rulers.

Question 36

pope Stephen ii

Answer 36

(r. 752–757) * Personally crossed the Alps to anoint Pepin the Short in 754. * Initiated the tradition of papal king-making. * Began the temporal rule of the papacy via the Donation of Pepin, forming the Papal States.

Question 37

donation of Constantine

Answer 37

forged 8th c.) * Asserted that Emperor Constantine granted authority over the West to the Pope. * Used to justify spiritual and temporal claims in Italy and beyond.

Question 38

Carolingian period and nocturnal authority

Answer 38

Leo iii Nicholas I

Question 39

Leo iii

Answer 39

r. 795–816) * Crowned Charlemagne Emperor in 800, asserting Roman control over imperial legitimacy. * Relationship was mutually reinforcing, but Leo’s authority depended on Carolingian protection.

Question 40

Nicholas I

Answer 40

r. 858–867) * Asserted Rome’s authority in: o Lothar II’s marriage dispute – challenged kings over canon law. o Conflict with Hincmar of Reims, who resisted papal interference in Frankish episcopal discipline. * Promoted idea of universal papal jurisdiction (libertas ecclesiae), but: o Frankish bishops resisted practical enforcement. o His authority was more effective rhetorically and symbolically than institutionally.

Question 41

geographical papal reach within latin west

Answer 41

* Rome was looked to for: o Resolution of doctrinal or canonical disputes (e.g. marriage, deposition of bishops) o Liturgical guidance (e.g. Roman Rite standardisation) o Missionary coordination (especially in Britain and Germania) * Cited by reformers (e.g. Boniface, Alcuin) as model of orthodoxy. * Pope often served as arbiter, not ruler — influence depended on voluntary appeal.

Question 42

limited power outside latin west

Answer 42

* No sustained control in North Africa, the Near East, or beyond. * Papal titles like vicarius Christi or caput ecclesiae were accepted only in the West. greek east

Question 43

greek east

Answer 43

East increasingly autonomous: o Papacy lost real influence in Byzantium after 5th c. o Tensions over Christology, jurisdiction, and iconoclasm. o Conflict with Patriarch Photius (867) symbolised a growing schism.

Question 44

constraints papal power

Answer 44

local episcopal autonomy dependency on secular protection lack of bureaucratic reach doctrinal disputes w east

Question 45

local episcopal autonomy

Answer 45

Bishops often resisted papal interference (e.g. Hincmar of Reims).

Question 46

dependency on secular protection

Answer 46

Without Frankish support, papal power was limited (e.g. Leo III vulnerable before Charlemagne’s intervention).

Question 47

lack of bureaucratic reach

Answer 47

No papal administration outside Italy; influence exercised via letters and missions.

Question 48

doctrinal disputes w east

Answer 48

Increasing theological and political rift reduced Rome’s relevance in the Eastern Church.

Question 49

holy men- brown

Answer 49

Peter Brown’s groundbreaking 1971 essay argued that the “holy man” in late antiquity (ca. 300–600 AD) emerged as a new and distinct social figure—a Christian ascetic who acted as a mediator between God and community, often outside the formal structures of the Church or state. Brown saw the rise of the holy man as intimately tied to: * The increasing localization of society in the post-Roman world * The decline of centralized imperial authority * The Christianization of the Eastern Roman Empire Rather than being purely religious or mystical figures, holy men functioned socially and politically—offering services such as conflict resolution, protection, healing, and intercession.

Question 50

holly men roels

Answer 50

social intermediaries

Question 51

social intermediaries

Answer 51

* In a fragmented and ruralized society, communication with imperial or ecclesiastical power was limited. * The holy man became a locally accessible figure who could: o Intercede with God (miracles, prayers) o Settle disputes (quasi-legal authority) o Offer spiritual guidance and reassurance * This function echoed older patron-client relationships but was reshaped in Christian terms.

Question 52

role of asceticism

Answer 52

* Ascetic practices (celibacy, fasting, withdrawal) marked the holy man as “other” and closer to the divine. * Paradoxically, withdrawal from the world (e.g., in the desert) gave these men moral authority within it. * They gained charisma and legitimacy not through institutional power, but through their perceived holiness and renunciation.

Question 53

charisma and community

Answer 53

* Brown adopted Weberian notions of charisma: personal sanctity or divine favor legitimized the holy man’s authority. * But this charisma was anchored in local community expectations. * Communities supported holy men materially in exchange for spiritual or political services.

Question 54

eastern christian examples types

Answer 54

stylites mosaic leaders hermits wonderowrkers- miracles crowds

Question 55

stylites

Answer 55

e.g., Simeon Stylites): lived on pillars in desert or urban fringes, drawing pilgrims

Question 56

monastic leaders

Answer 56

founders of cenobitic communities who acted as local moral authoritiesh

Question 57

hermits

Answer 57

solitary ascetics who nonetheless often advised or mediated in local matters

Question 58

eastern christian power

Answer 58

men often resisted formal episcopal authority, creating tensions between institutional Church leaders and local charismatic figures

Question 59

brown view of 1971 thesis

Answer 59

* He acknowledged that his earlier essay overemphasized the functionalism of the holy man (as a mere social agent) and underplayed theological motivations. * Early Christian notions of imitation of Christ, martyrdom, and sainthood were not mere sociological veneers but motivating ideals. * He responded to criticisms that his 1971 view was too secularizing or structuralist.

Question 60

east v west holy men

Answer 60

* In the West, bishops were more central and institutional—thus the holy man phenomenon was less prominent. * In the East, weaker diocesan structures and stronger traditions of desert asceticism encouraged the rise of charismatic figures. * Brown urged scholars to study regional variations more carefully.