Religion and Beliefs

Question 1

What did Durkheim say about religion?

Answer 1

Belief is based on totemism, all religions involve ceremony and rituals which bind people and society together (social solidarity) , collective conscience (shared norms and values) , function remains even if religion fades out

Question 2

What did Marx say about religion?

Answer 2

Religion ‘a haven of a heartless world’ numbs suffering of poor, justification for inequality, should and will disappear (agrees with secular view)

Question 3

What did feminists say about religion?

Answer 3

Religious ideology legitimates oppression and subordination of women (patriarchal) ‘marginalised’

Question 4

What did Armstrong,Holm and woodhead say about the evidence for patriarchy?

Answer 4

Armstrong, Religious orgs: sees exclusion as evidence of marginalisation e.g. Catholicism forbids women to become priests

Holm, places of worship: often segregate sexes , ‘devaluation of women’

Sacred texts: largely feature male gods

Woodhead, religious laws and customs: may give women fewer rights such as dress code

Question 5

What did El Saadawi, Woodhead and Gilliant ray say about it being the culture, not the religion?

Answer 5

El saadawi = undermines women, male dominated countries use religion to justify inequality e.g. Saudi Arabia and hijab

Woodhead = while many religious institutions are patriarchal, women can express freedom + self respect through faith

Gilliant Ray = found many British Muslims see hijab as sign of oppression but may also see it as liberating.

Question 6

What do postmodernists say about religion?

And what did Giddens say about what this has caused?

Answer 6

Claim that traditional theories cannot explain religion today, beliefs vary, people in a postmodern society choose what best suits them, described as a diy cocktail/spiritual supermarket, religion more personalised, growth in new age movements result of this, GIDDENS = large amount in choice of beliefs available has caused rise in fundamentalism.

Question 7

What do postmodernists Giddens, Baumann, Lyotard and Bruce say about religion?

Answer 7

Giddens = fundamentalism is quite new, grown because it provides rigid and simple truth in a changing world

Baumann = like Giddens sees fundamentalism as response to living in postmodernity as new religions emerge and it brings freedom choice
Lyotard = some embrace new religions, some attracted to fundamentalism 

Bruce = sees fundamentalism as being confined to monotheistic religions

Question 8

What do Neo-Marxists Althusser, Marx and Gramsci believe about religion?

Answer 8

Althusser and Marx called it the ‘ideological state apparatus’ as it gives belief system that keeps people oppressed

Gramsci = believed in the ‘dual character of religion’ e.g. one side is a ‘hegemony’ (overall dominance) and the other is that it could also serve needs of the poor (good and bad side)

Question 9

What is the Neo-Marxists liberation theory and which sociologists explain it?

Answer 9

Maduro = social movement that emerged from Catholic Church, particularly in SA, which believed that the church and its leaders had a responsibility to defend rights of poor

Casanova = argues although gone, values still hold

Question 10

What are the reasons for secularisation and what sociologists stated each reason?

Answer 10

Weber = Rationalisation, people believing less in supernatural and development in science and tech > disenchantment since 16th century

Bruce = society has ‘technological worldview’ which replaces religious beliefs e.g. NHS

Parsons = Structural differentiation, religion was a huge institution that dominated pre-industrial society e.g. created laws and customs but in industrial society found other ways to deal with this eg. Government, charities

Question 11

What are the other reasons for secularisation and the sociologists that stated them?

Answer 11

Wilson = Decline of small communities, pre industrial society made of SC with shared values, religion etc.

Bruce = Industrialisation, diversity in religion

Berger = Religious diversity, no longer single religion everyone follows

Question 12

What does Lyotard, Davie and Hervieu-leger say about being against secularisation?

(New forms of religion)

Answer 12

Lyotard = society has moved to a postmodern state where traditional views no longer work > driven by globalisation, metanarrarives no longer apply.

Davie = Obligation > consumption, ppl no longer obliged to go to church, Believing without belonging e.g. e-church , Vicarious religion is increasing (practiced by active minority)

Hervieu-leger, Spiritual shopping, More personal choice due to cultural amnesia, 2 groups emerging: pilgrims (follow individual path) and converts (offer strong sense of belonging)

Question 13

What did Lyon, Berger and Heelas and Woodhead say about being against secularisation?

Answer 13

Lyon = agrees with Davie, religious diversity, pick n mix, consumerism of religion, globalisation etc.

Berger = no monopoly of religions

Heelas+Woodhead = ‘Spiritual revolution’, new age beliefs and practices emphasise personal development > increased interest in spirituality, study of Cumbria found evangelical churches successful because they emphasise importance of spiritual healing and personal growth.

Question 14

What are the Alternatives to secularisation and what sociologists stated them?

Answer 14

Stark and Bainbridge: Religious market theory, secularisation only focuses on decline in Europe, ignores rise in America and worldwide.

Supply not demand: e.g. CofE, inevitable decline

Finke = immigration of Asian communities to USA in 60’s led to steady growth of Buddhism

Norris+Inglehart: Existential security theory, people feel secure, low secular = Rwanda high = UK

Question 15

What is the relationship between globalisation and religion and what did Meyer et Al and Singleton say about this?

Answer 15

Meyer et Al: says globalisation causes growing religious diversity + less tied to geographical locations e.g. deterritorialisation

Singleton: e.g. Islam reconstituted as a transnational religion > ‘Ummah’ (worldwide community of faith) in UK, China etc.

Question 16

What is the impact of globalisation and what did Huntington, Kurtz, singleton and Nada say about this?

Answer 16

Huntington: Clash of civilisations, sees religion and identities as an important aspect of civilisations (can contradict one another)

Kurtz: globalisation has revitalised ‘culture wars’ e.g. islamaphobia

Singleton: rise of Islamic fundamentalism is the result of globalisation (‘cultural defence’)

India: Nada believes large majority of class believe in supernatural even though a lot are favouring secular worldview

Question 17

What did Troeltsh and and Niebuhr day?

Answer 17

Troeltsh: two categories, churches +sects, churches are large and have a bureaucratic hierarchy and claim to be one truth, whereas sects are small/strict and often headed by a charismatic leader exclusive membership and claim to be one truth e.g. moonies

Niebuhr: 2 more, denominations+cults: denominations can vary in size membership less exclusive but don’t try to appeal to wider society with minor restrictions e.g. Methodist church, Jehovah’s witnesses
Cults - small and no hierarchy/ open to all and individualistic e.g. People’s temple

Question 18

What did Bruce and Stark and Bainbridge say about these views?

Answer 18

Bruce: Troeltsh’s ides of churches no longer valid as no religious orgs have total religious monopoly. Sects and cults have flourished in recent years.

Stark and Bainbridge: Cults and sects are generally small religious groups that are in conflict with wider society.

Question 19

What did Wilson, Giddens and stark and Bainbridge say about cults and sects?

Answer 19

Wilson: sects = charismatic leader; discipline

Giddens: Cults = focus on individual needs, works with other beliefs

Stark+Bainbridge: 3 categories of cults, Audience cult, Client cult and Cult movements
E.g. astrology, therapy and Scientology

Question 20

What are the reasons for the growth of NRM’s?

Weber, Wallis, Stark+Bainbridge

Answer 20

Weber: Marginality, many ppl join NRM’s due to feeling marginalised from society e.g. poor

Wallis: Also applies to many middle class e.g. 60’s, hippies etc. not poor just disadvantaged

Wallis: Relative deprivation, many m/c felt deprived spiritually and morally

Stark+Bainbridge: when ppl felt ‘inadequate’ compared to those around them > joined cults

Question 21

What are the other reasons for growth growth in NRM’s?

Answer 21

Wilson: Social change, Rapid social change leads to feelings of ‘anomie’ and ‘normalessness’ e.g. industrial revolution

Bruce = in modern society, secularisation moves ppl away from churches etc. But cults grow (less demanding)

NRM’s different to new age movements as new age not necessarily religious.

Question 22

What caused the growth of new age movements and what did Heelas say about this?

Answer 22

Heelas: two common themes that characterise the New Age - Self spirituality (looking in yourself)
And Detraditionalisation (rejects spiritual authority e.g. priest)

Heelas: Consumer culture - creates dissatisfaction because it never delivers the perfection it promises e.g. advertising whereas New Age offers alternative way to achieve perfection

Question 23

What are the other reasons for the growth in New Age movements according to Drane and Bruce?

Answer 23

Drane: argues appeal is due to postmodern society as there is a loss of meta narratives

Bruce: feature of latest phase of modern society, not postmodernity e.g. modernity values individualism

Decline of organised religion is also a reason e.g. California lowest church going in USA > New Age the strongest

Question 24

What did Wallis identify as the 3 types of NRM’s?

Answer 24

World rejecting: e.g. moonies, Manson family

World accomadating: often breakaways from churches or denominations, neither accept or reject the world

World affirming: Accept world as it is, optimistic, tolerant of others and claim to offer special knowledge e.g. Scientology, TM

Question 25

What statistics are there about gender and religiosity?

Answer 25

Brierley: Female churchgoers outnumber men by half a million Davie: more women say they believe in god (84 to 75%)

Question 26

What are the reasons for gender differences according to Miller+Hoffman, Bruce and Brown?

Answer 26

Miller+Hoffman: Risk socialisation and roles - men less risk adverse > take risk of not being religious and women socialised to be more obedient and men often work so women take kids to church. Bruce: Paid work - argues that religiosity is result of lower involvement in paid work Although, Brown: believes privatisation brought women out of religion > to work.

Question 27

What are the other reasons for gender differences according to Heelas+Woodhead, Bruce and Stark + Bainbridge?

Answer 27

H+W: 80% of participants in the holistic mileu where females more associated with the ‘healing role’ (individual sphere, concerned with personal growth) Bruce: women attracted to NA movements as they wish to ‘feel’ and less restricted gender roles Bruce: 2X more women in sects and S+B: say this is because they offer compensators for deprivation

Question 28

What did Weber say about religion as a force for social change?

Answer 28

Weber: Protestant work ethic and spirit of capitalism - the belief in Calvinism (form of Protestantism) helped to rapidly change society in Europe in 16th+17th, not conservative > success of modern capitalism. Features: predestination (fate already decided) Intensely worldly activity (hard work solution) Protestant ethic (chosen one) Capitalist industrialisation

Question 29

Religion and social protest: what did Bruce say about churches and fundamentalism?

Answer 29

Bruce: church ‘ideological resource’ that motivated and gave civil rights protest strength and provided sanctuary. Bruce: believed the New Christian Right (fundamentalist) failed because modern views conflicted with group, too conservative Also believes Islamic fundamentalism seeks to move society backwards

Question 30

What did Weber say about science as a belief system?

Answer 30

Rationalisation and disenchantment, science different as there is evidence, no gods or totems and deals with the natural world ‘Scientism’ = a belief system/ideology that believes science is the only answer to everything, can only believe in things that are empirically provable (physical proof) therefore religion = false BUT most scientists don’t follow this belief.

Question 31

What did Popper say about science being a ‘open system’

Answer 31

Popper = success of science science is based on it being a ‘open system’, open to providing and disproving each other’s theories, ‘truth’ always updates. Science works through ‘falsificationism’ - seeking to disprove theories (proving them to be false) by testing > closer to what is right. E.g. ppl believed sun revolved around the earth till copernicus proved false. Cumulative (builds over time), no sacred or absolute truth .

Question 32

What did Merton say about science as an open belief system?

Answer 32

Merton = CUDOS Norms, science only thrives with support from other institutions and values e.g. government funding etc. Communism = knowledge shared by everyone Universalism = can be done by anyone Disinterested ness = for its own sake Organised = every theory open to scrutiny Scepticism = no claim seen as ‘sacred’

Question 33

What did Kuhn say about science as a closed system?

Answer 33

In a closed system, knowledge claims cannot be overturned/proven wrong e.g. catholic’s believing god created humans > god caused evolution. Kuhn = science is a closed system based on PARADIGMS (set of values/beliefs and assumptions about what is being researched). Scientists investigate within these looking for what they want to find. Unusual or different findings may be ignored or dismissed as anomalies. Scientists may be rejected by others if they challenge these pardigms. Thread only change when loads of anomalies called SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION.

Question 34

What did Woolgar say about science being a closed system?

Answer 34

Woolgar = Scientists interpret their findings, they decide what the evidence means, they then have to persuade other scientists to accept their theory.

Question 35

What are Marxist and feminist views on science?

Answer 35

Critical perspectives like M+F see scientific knowledge as far from pure truth > regard as serving interests of dominant groups e.g. Yh theoretical work on ballistics driven by need for new weaponary = benefitted capitalism or biological ideas have been used to justify male domination.

Question 36

What is the postmodernist on science?

Answer 36

Also reject knowledge claims of science to have the ‘truth’ in view that of Lyotard = science seen as one meta narrative that falsely claims to possess truth. In reality science is more of a ‘discourse’ or way of thinking that is used to dominate people like Marxists.

Question 37

What did Mannheim say about ideology as a belief system?

Answer 37

Mannheim (1839, old) = All belief systems are one-sided, they all see world in only one way. Two types: ideological thought = grips that want to maintain the status quo e.g. new right Utopian thought = groups that want social change e.g. Marxism, Feminism Functionalists support nationalism (unifies) Gellnar = sees nationalism as a false consciousness.