Religion and postmodernity Flashcards
(27 cards)
What is postmodernity
postmodernists are sociologists who argue that society has changed fundamentally since the mid-to-late 20th century, making many traditional sociological theories (like Marxism and Functionalism) outdated.
What is resacralization
The idea that people are becoming more religious and spiritual (basically the opposite of secularisation
Evidence for resacralisation
-Resacralization explains the growth of Christian and Islamic fundamentalist religious movements and the fact that in many countries around the world religious beliefs and practices are flourishing.
-In the past people had no choice but to be religious. While this meant that there was a lot of apparently religious people we don’t know very much about their actual religious commitment. However people now choose their religion and by doing so they are actually showing greater commitment. Fewer more committed believers demonstrate resacralisation.
Evidence against resacralisation
Any arguments that are pro secularisation.
What is privatisation
-Religion being practised more in private rather than in the public sphere.
Arguments for privatisation
-In Western Europe Christianity has retreated from the public sphere of practice into the private sphere of religious belief. The role and function of religion has changed , it no longer has to perform functions like ;
-communality (bringing people physically together)
-Social solidarity
-Identity (the idea that we become ‘centered’ or secure in the knowledge of ‘who we are’ through communal religious practices.
->
Evidence against privatisation
- Putman (2000) argues that modern societies have seen a gradual withdrawal of public participation in all areas of society. This suggests that the privatisation of religious practice is part of general cultural transition , not one limited to religion.
-Bruce argues that the situation is different for minority ethnicities. In the UK these groups have moved from a situation where their groups were dominant to an environment in which they are form a small minority whose religiosity marks them as different form ethnic ethnic majority and the wider society they live in.
What are new religious movements
This are movements that developed in the mid to late 20th century.
They are organised religious groups that offer new or alternative beliefs compared to traditional religions
for example ;
Jehovah’s Witnesses
Hare Krishna (ISKCON)
Scientology
What are the characteristics of NRMs
Many recruits are first generation converts, and these early adopters tend to be highly committed and enthusiastic. Many of then will actively try to convert other people.
Recent NRMs attract more young, middle-class recruits than other religious organisations, partly because the young are more likely to be targeted for recruitment and partly because they are more open to new experiences.
Young converts are attracted by the religious and personal certainties offered by NRMs. These groups promote a particular form of ‘truth’ that is less open to questioning by converts than the ‘truths’ promoted by churches and denominations.
This combination gives many NRMs the characteristics of a total institution - a place where people are cut off from the wider society, and lead an enclosed, formally administered life so that they have little freedom, for example about what to do and when.
Reasons for the growth of new religious movements
Wallis (1984) ;
pointed to a number of social changes that he believed accounted for the growth of new religious movements in the 1960s, some of which particularly relate to young people.
1) First, Wallis stated that the growth of
higher education extended the transition between childhood and adulthood, giving young people the time to explore different ideas and lifestyles free from work and family responsibilities.
2) Second, the young felt that new technology would lead to the end of economic scarcity, giving the economic freedom to try out new
ways of living.
3) Third, radical political movements in the 1960s encouraged the exploration of alternative
lifestyles. These reasons coincide with the large-scale social change which led many individuals to turn to new religious movements for individual reasons, such as searching for identity, belonging and security.
What are new age movements
The New Age Movement consists of an eclectic range of beliefs and practices based on Buddhism and Taoism, psychology, and psycho-therapy; paganism, clairvoyance, tarot and magic.
e.g
Astrology
Yoga
Crystal healing
Tarot cards
Meditation and mindfulness (as spiritual tools)
Reiki, chakras, aura reading
Reasons for the growth of new age movements
- John Drane (1999) argues that the appeal of New Age movements is connected to the failure of new religious movements to deliver personal satisfaction.
->Drane, along with postmodernist sociologists,
claims that Western societies are turning against
modern institutions and belief systems. They claim that people have lost faith in these due to the problems experienced in the modern era, such as the world wars and environmental destruction - for example, the depletion of the ozone layer.
->There is also considerable scepticism about science, such as the way that some drug companies have placed pursuit of profit over a desire to improve health and cure illnesses.
->Similarly, the church is treated
with distrust due to its failure to keep in touch with people’s need for spirituality and because it has been associated with corruption and abuse cases.
This has led to people turning to New Age movements as an alternative, postmodern form of spirituality.
Reasons for the growth of sects and cults
-Marginality
-Social change
-Relative deprivation
Explain social change as a reason for the growth of sects and cults
Big, disruptive shifts in society—like industrialization or modernization—create confusion, driving people to sects or cults for stability.
Wilson’s (1970): Sects pop up when rapid change upends traditional norms, leaving social relationships shaky. They offer a new anchor—community, clear rules, salvation.
Example: Methodism grew during Britain’s Industrial Revolution (18th–19th century). Workers, uprooted from villages to factories, found support in Methodist groups—tight-knit, with strong values—amid chaos.
Explain relative deprivation as a reason for the growth of sects and cults
‘relative deprivation’ refers to
subjectively perceived deprivation - the feeling
of having less than others. Certain members of
the middle class, for example, may feel spiritually deprived rather than materially deprived in a world they see as too materialistic, lonely and impersonal.
According to Wallis, this means that they therefore seek salvation in the sense of community offered by the sect; it becomes an opportunity.
Stark and Bainbridge (1985) define sects as organisations that break away from an established church, and they believe it is the relatively deprived who are likely to break away. McGuire (2002) argues that the relative deprivation does not directly cause the
growth of sects, but it can produce conditions which make growth more likely.
Explain marginality as a reason for the growth of sects and cults
Weber provided one of the earliest explanations for the growth of sects.
He argued that they were likely to arise
within marginal groups in society: (members
of groups outside the mainstream of social life,
who often feel that they are not receiving the
prestige and/or economic rewards they deserve.)
Marginalised groups lack power and control, and see religion as a form of resistance. One solution to this problem is to join a sect based on what Weber called a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’ (a religious explanation for their struggles) They are drawn to sects that offer this. This enables people to explain their position in society and to find a way to improve it.
- Wilson (1970): argued that marginality spikes in crises—war defeats, natural disasters, economic crashes. These make groups feel disconnected, fertile ground for sects.
Example:
- In the 1960s USA, the Nation of Islam recruited poor African Americans, including prisoners, offering identity and hope to the disadvantaged.
-In the 1960s and 1970s, young, white, middle-class Americans who felt disconnected from society (e.g., those in hippy subcultures, involved in drug use, or alternative lifestyles like surfing) were drawn to new religious movements as they were also feeling marginal
What is religious fundamentalism
According to Bauman (1977) fundamentalism referred to forms of belief and organisation that advocate a strict observance of the ‘fundamental beliefs of a religion’ whether of Christianity or Islam
Why does religious fundamentalism develop?
-ReligIous fundamentalism develops to remove risk in an uncertain world by removing the choices that create uncertainty.Fundamentalism is based in the idea that giving individuals clear moral guidelines drawn from religious texts, removes both fear and the consequences of taking risks.
Reasons for the growth of religious fundamentalism
1) Globalisation
2)Cultural defence
3) Cultural transition
4)Marginalisation
Explain marginalisation as a reason for the growth of religious fundamentalism
Explain Globalisation as a reason for the growth of religious fundamentalism
- Globalisation exposes people to different views and belief systems. This leads to notions of moral relativism -nothing is intrinsically good and nothing wholly bad. Without moral certainties people see the world as a more frightening and dangerous place and they feel threatened and alone. Fundamentalism provides moral certainties and rules of behaviour imposing a sense of order and stability in a world that has become lacking in order, unstable and confusing.
-Giddens (1999) argues that fundamentalism is a response to modernity, which brings increased choice, uncertainty, and risk.
Fundamentalism offers certainty, tradition, and clear moral codes in an unstable world
Evidence for globalisation as a reason for the growth of fundamentalism
For:
The rise of Islamic fundamentalism has largely coincided with a period
when many Islamic countries have become increasingly exposed to
globalisation and to the influence of western values and institutions.
Bruce argues that fundamentalism is a form of cultural defence where
people seek to protect and maintain their cultural or ethnic identity in the
face of rapid social changes and the spread of western culture.
The spread of globalisation challenges traditional religious authority by
promoting materialism, democracy, individual rights, and western values.
Fundamentalism is therefore a rational response of traditionally religious
people to ideas that threaten their existing worldview.
Examples of fundamentalist movements that have mounted opposition to
globalisation.
Evidence against globalisation as a reason for the growth of fundamentalism
The idea that globalisation and the spread of capitalism has led to a
growth in fundamentalism may fit some examples of fundamentalism
better than others. For example, support for Christian fundamentalism in
America has increased rapidly in recent years, yet capitalism and other
features of globalisation have been long established in America. It is hard
to see how this recent growth in Christian fundamentalism can be
explained as a reaction to increased globalisation.
Explanations for the growth of fundamentalism must consider that some
social groups are more likely to be supporters of fundamentalist beliefs
than others. Groups that are poor or marginalised are more likely to be
adherents, for example. Alongside the impact of globalisation, therefore,
attention needs to be paid to poverty and deprivation as factors that also
contribute to the growth in fundamentalist religions.
The idea that fundamentalism is an attempt to defend traditional religious
values can be questioned. Fundamentalism in some forms today can be
seen not so much as a reaction to the spread of globalisation but as an
expression of certain modernist values. For example, some converts to
fundamentalist religions speak of a search for personal identity, meaning,
and a desirable lifestyle.
Difficulties in defining fundamentalism and measuring whether there has
been a growth in this form of religious practice and belief in recent years.
It is questionable whether fundamentalism is increasing in all countries as
opposed to just some, therefore raising questions about whether the
emergence of globalisation alone is a sufficient explanation for increasing
fundamentalism
Explain cultural defense as a reason for the growth of religious fundamentalism
-Bruce (2008) suggests fundamentalism arises when a religious group feels their identity is under threat.
Religion becomes a focal point for defending a national, ethnic, or cultural identity (e.g., Islamic fundamentalism in the Middle East; Orthodox Judaism in Israel).
It is often a reaction to foreign influence, oppression, or colonisation
-Where a group feels that their culture , traditions or language are under threat for example by the spread of Western and American culture , greater religiosity can be a defense.
-For example the iranian revolution in 1979 which was a response of the shah’s attempts to bring in western culture against western exploitation of iran. The existing religion played the role of cultural defense because the great majority of iranians shared a religion.
-Cultural defence can also be a response to discrimination - for example, Islamophobia. People may respond to such discrimination through the strengthening of their religious beliefs as a way of seeking comfort from a
world that is otherwise hostile.
