Religion And Social Groups

Question 1

social class

churches and denominations

Answer 1

A survey conducted by YouGov in 2015 found that more than 60% of people who regularly attend church are middle class, and only 38% are working class. Research by Ashworth and Farthing (2007) also supports this view with findings which suggest that those in professional occupations or management roles are much more likely to regularly attend church than the poorest members of society.
Denominations however tend to appeal more to the working-class population. This might be because, as Niebuhr suggests, denominations are less heavily linked to the state and mainstream society and so appeal more to those who are marginalised or feel exploited and oppressed by mainstream society.

Question 2

social class

sects

theodicy of dispriviladge

Answer 2

Sects seem to gain their membership from the most deprived and marginalised social groups who use them as a means of coping with their disadvantage. This reflects the concept of ‘opium of the people’ used by Marx and is described by Weber as a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’.
However, some sects also attract younger middle-class members, often students, who recognise inequality and injustice in the world and want to make a change.

Question 3

social class

cults and the new age

Answer 3

Followers of cults and New Age movements tend to be middle class. Bruce and Heelas argue that they appeal to those who are fulfilled in other areas of life i.e. those who are successful and wealthy, but who may be lacking in spirituality and hope to fill that void
However, there is evidence to suggest that the working classes do engage with other forms of spirituality such as astrology.

Question 4

age

the ageing effect

voas and crockett

Answer 4

Voas and Crockett state that older people are more likely to attend Church of England services than young people. This may be due to the fact that they have more time, being retired. It may also be a way of retaining a community and social ties. Many older people may be at risk of feeling disengaged from society otherwise.

Question 5

age

is there life after death

Answer 5

In the past, older people claimed to believe more in the afterlife. But according to Voas and Bruce (2018) older people are now less likely to believe in an afterlife than younger people. Voas and Bruce state: ‘as they age, people come to accept there is an end.

Question 6

age

the generational effect

Answer 6

Older people were socialised at a time when religion was popular and prominent. Due to secularisation, this is no longer the case. Children today are less likely to be socialised into one religion by their parents or by the education system than in the past and religion is a less influential institution in wider society. Voas and Crockett argue the generational effect is the most significant factor influencing patterns of religiosity between age groups.

According to Voas and Bruce (2018) ‘research suggests that Britain is becoming more secular not because adults are losing their religion or inclination to practice but because old people with an attachment to the Church of England and other forms of Christianity are gradually being replaced in the population by unaffiliated younger people.’

Question 7

evaluation- age

is it true that young people are less religous

Answer 7

It is important to recognise that assuming that younger people are less religious may be problematic. This data is based on information on Church attendance and self-report surveys (e.g. YouGov survey mentioned above) which can both present issues in terms of measuring religiosity:

· Just because young people are not attending church does not mean that they are not practicing religion and/or spirituality in a more private and personal way. Davie calls this ‘belief without belonging’

· Young people may simply be less willing to admit their religiosity on a self-report survey or take part in surveys about religiosity

It is also vital to ensure we are not being Christocentric. While religiosity among young people in Christianity is low, this is not true for Islam where young people are more likely than older people to identify as Muslim.

Lynch argues there is also evidence to suggest that while young people are not interested in more traditional religions they are attracted to spirituality in the form of New Age movements in a ‘spiritual marketplace’ which offers greater choice.

Question 8

gender

the influence of religion on gender structures

Answer 8

Radical feminists argue that religion is patriarchal and reinforces patriarchy in wider society, whereas liberal feminists argue that religion can be liberating for women and that religious institutions are becoming more egalitarian.

Question 9

gender

patterns of religiosity based on gender

Answer 9

There are clear gender differences in religious belief and participation. Although those in positions of power in most religious hierarchies are male, more women than men participate in religious activities and have religious beliefs. On average, 65% of the members of congregations at UK Churches are women.

Question 10

gender- why are women more religous than men

womens role in the family

Answer 10

Traditionally, women’s role in the family has been as caregiver and as responsible for the primary socialisation of children. Miller and Hoffman suggest that women are seen as the ‘guardians of family life’. Attending church and other religious activities have been seen as part of the woman’s role in instilling moral values in their children.

Question 11

gender- why are women more religous than men

women out of employment

Answer 11

Where women have traditionally not worked outside of the home, this has left them with more time for religious activities during the week

Question 12

gender- why are women more religous than men

womens isolation from secularisation

Answer 12

Because women have traditionally been confined to the domestic sphere of the home they have been impacted less by new ideas and attitudes in the public sphere such as those concerned with secularisation. Trzebiatowska and Bruce (2012) argue that men have been influenced by growing secularisation of society before women, meaning that congregations have become dominated by women. They predict that as women’s role in society become equal to men’s that the gender gap in religion will close.

Question 13

gender- why are women more religous than men

gendered socialisation

Answer 13

Bruce notes that males and females are socialised differently with females encouraged to develop their emotional and nurturing side. In this way they are encouraged more to consider and be involved with issues of morality which are embedded in religion.

Question 14

gender- why are women more religous than men

Poverty, marginality and social deprivation

Answer 14

Women are also more likely to experience poverty, marginality and social deprivation. This is because, in a patriarchal society, woman lack power and status. Therefore, like the working class, women are likely to use religion as a way of coping and understanding their oppression as religion offers a theodicy of disprivilege. This means that working class women in particular are most likely to use religion in this way as one of the least powerful groups in society.

Question 15

ethnicity

ethnic group

Answer 15

A way to classify people who share a culture - traditions, norms and values and ways of life. Religion is an important part of this.

Question 16

ethnicity

ethnic minority

Answer 16

An ethnic group with a different culture to most members of the host society. It is important to remember that ethnic minorities are not a homogenous group – you must consider the differences between ethnic groups as different ethnic groups participate in and use religion very differently.

Question 17

ethnicity

black and african caribbean
penticostal christianity

Answer 17

Largest Christian group among British African Caribbean’s. Congregations in half of British Pentecostal churches are predominantly black
· Most are Pentecostal Christian before coming to the UK · Many encountered racism in established Christian churches and found British churches boring in comparison to Pentecostal services they were used to · As a result, they began to establish their own Pentecostal churches

Question 18

ethnicity

asian groups, islam

Answer 18

· In contemporary Britain, young people from minority ethnic groups are brought up with liberal values · This means that Muslim values such as arranged marriages are difficult to sustain · Despite this, affiliation to Islam remains strong among Asian groups

Question 19

ethnicity

asian groups, hinduism

Answer 19

· Practices such as the Hindu caste system are difficult to sustain due to things such as laws against discrimination in employment

Question 20

ethnicity

why are ethnic groups more religous

Answer 20

Many reasons have been suggested for ethnic differences in religiosity, one being that ethnic minorities originate from countries with higher levels of belief and practice. But this disregards the importance of the process of migrating and becoming a minority in a new society, and the function religion plays during this process for individuals and groups

Question 21

ethnicity

cultural defence and identity

Answer 21

Bruce argues religion may offer a source of support and provide a sense of identity in response to the uncertainty and potential hostility and racism faced when joining a new society. It may provide a means of maintaining traditions and developing social solidarity and group cohesion.

Religion is also used as a form of cultural defence in terms of preserving many elements of cultural identity – dress, food, rituals and festivals, norms and values. Mosques and Sikh Temples are often community centres as well as places of worship providing a social space for preserving cultural values and traditions.

However, Johal argues that many young British Asians are actually creating their own hybrid identities which he calls ‘Brasian’, involving a combination of British and Asian/religious values. Brasians might value the religious beliefs of their parents as important, but may reject some cultural traditions such as arranged marriage or restrictions on drinking.

Question 22

ethnicity

cultural transition

Answer 22

Religion can ease the transition into a new culture. Religious organisations can help others to settle by providing very practical support. For many Muslim, Sikh and Hindu migrants, religious organisations become a basis of support aiding adjustment to a new society. Mosques, temples and churches became community centres when people move into new areas

Question 23

ethnicity

Social deprivation, marginality and status frustration

Answer 23

Members of ethnic minorities are disproportionately amongst the poor and disadvantaged: around two thirds of working age adults were living in low-income households in 2011-12. Religion may provide an explanation for this (theodicy of disprivilege – Weber), but also provides a sense of hope and belonging which can restore pride.

Question 24

intersectionality

combining cage

Answer 24

· Despite the fact that religiosity is stronger among ethnic minorities, they still undergo similar processes in terms of age. In most minority ethnic groups, second and third generation migrants are less religious than their parents.

· In terms of gender, women tend to be more religious than men across most minority ethnic groups.

· Ethnic minorities are also predominantly among the lower social classes, so arguments about religiosity among lower social class groups can often be applied to ethnic minorities too.

Question 25

cage conclusions

wilde and glassman

Answer 25

introduce the concept of ‘complex religion’ which introduces the idea that religious affiliation is deeply entwined with structural inequalities such as ethnicity, class and gender. They claim that structures of inequality profoundly overlap with religious group membership.