Reproduction Flashcards

Question

Barren cow target

Answer 1

>65% calve down in 1st 3 weeks >90% calving in 1st 9 weeks Calculate as expected start date + 3 weeks, and include those calving early (so may be longer than 3 weeks)

Answer 2

13.5 months

Answer 3

<24 months

Answer 4

Heifers bred/heifers eligible to be bred - target >80% target >65% in year round adults Adults in block >95% in 1st 4 weeks

Answer 5

Heifers conceived/heifers bred - target >60% in block Target >35% in year round adults Adults in block >60%

Answer 6

Heifer submission rate x heifer conception rate - target >55% target >25% in year round adults >55% adult block calving

Answer 7

Failure to breed - BCS - General health - Milk yield - dairy - Anatomical/congenital abnormalities - Errors in synch protocols - Bull problems Failure to conceive/maintain pregnancy - Reproductive pathology - Early embryonic death/abortion - Errors in synch protocol - AI errors

Answer 8

Failure to breed - Low/absent libido - Pathologies of penis/prepuce affecting intromission - Lameness - Inexperience - Too high cow:bull ratio Failure to conceive - Pathologies causing orchitis/epididymitis - Penile abnormalities - Inadequate testicular circumference - Sperm abnormalities - AI errors

Answer 9

To achieve 365 calving interval cows need to start breeding before 58DIM and conceive by 81DIM (assuming 280d gestation) Consider - Assisted calving - Negative energy balance - Metabolic disorders - Uterine health - General health - lameness and mastitis Improved by identification and resolution of underlying issue - use data to help

Answer 10

Cows in NEB after calving - adverse effects on resumption of cyclicity and embryo quality Related to negative effects of NEB on circulating insulin like growth factors (IGF-1) NEB also associated with increased risk of postpartum disease Affects resumption of cyclicity Affect uterine environment and health Managed by ensuring adequate nutrition in the transition period (3 weeks before and 3 weeks after calving)

Answer 11

Oestrus detection fundamental for efficient reproduction High yielding cows have shorter oestrus periods (~6hrs) and less standing time (~22s) Lower oestradiol concentration Increased metabolism Short-term decrease in production if stressed

Answer 12

1 - induce luteolysis - shorten CL lifespan - induce oestrus sooner - Prostaglandin 2 - Mimic luteal phase of cycle - induce oestrus when withdrawn - PRID/CIDR - Prostaglandin usually also used to ensure no functional CL present Synch protocols typically use both

Answer 13

Submission rate = proportion of cows eligible to be bred that actually are bred (expressed as %) Cows that are eligible for breeding: Those outside the voluntary waiting period Those that are not pregnant Therefore submission rate depends on effective identification of cows in oestrus Synchronisation protocols and fixed time AI - Theoretically = SR of 100% Synchronisation protocols and AI to observed oestrus - Still needs effective oestrus detection

Answer 14

Removes need for oestrus detection - therefore all eligible cows should be served - SR of 100% Can be used to ensure a lot of cows served at same time - seasonal herd or compensate for suboptimal oestrus detection - AYR

Answer 15

Cycling animals that do not conceive - ovulating but oocyte not being fertilised - Investigate reasons for non-conception including the male or AI procedure Animals that are not (or do not appear to be) cycling at all - Not ovulating at all - Rule out poor oestrus detection first - are these animals truly in anoestrus - data and clinical exam - Investigate reasons for true anoestrus Animals that conceive but do not maintain pregnancy - Early embryonic death or abortion - This is more common than 1 and 2 in sheep

Answer 16

These are the repeat breeding - needing >3 serves before pregnancy Improper/incorrect insemination - timing, oestrus detection, technique, semen storage Infectious - uterine infection prior to insemination, at or after breeding - early embryonic death or failure of conceptus Toxins - mycotoxins, endotoxins - e.coli mastitis Metabolic/nutritional - negative energy balance, mineral deficiencies Iatrogenic causes - improper use of hormonal drugs Sire choice - semen abnormalities

Answer 17

Anoestrus - absence of oestrus cycles Failure to observe oestrus - not true anoestrus Metabolic/nutritional - negative energy balance, vitamin and trace element deficiency Uterine infection - pyometra/endometritis Pregnancy - will not cycle if preganant - check before PGF2a Cystic ovarian disease - 70% show anoestrus Suckling calf at foot - most common cause in beef

Answer 18

BVD - cattle - early embryonic death, ovarian damage - long returns to service (25-35 days), reduced conception rates Border disease - Sheep and goats - poor fertility - increased barren rate IBR (BoHV-1) - Cattle - temporary ovarian necrosis, follicular degeneration - reduced conception rates due to reduced ovulation capacity and reduced oocyte viability

Answer 19

Leptospira - cattle (sheen can carry) - poor fertility and EED - possible due to endometrial inflammation - Present as reduced conception rates and long returns to service Brucella - all ruminants - poor fertility, epididymitis and orchitis - Present as reduced conception rates (cattle) increased barren rate (sheep) Often initially presents as poor conception/barren rates in females Campylobacter - cattle and sheep - Endometritis - cattle - Failure to conceive - EED - cattle - Abortion - cattle and sheep Present as irregular oestrus cycles, repeat breeding - long calving intervals Returns to oestrus Long returns to service (25-35d) Visible abortion Tritrichonomas - cattle - EED, pyometra and endometritis Present as - Long returns to service (25-35d) Identified on clinical exam Venereal spread 1.5x cycle length often a signs of EED

Answer 20

Fluid uterus - pus – pyometra/endometritis Scan ovaries CL present PGF Pyometra – purulent fluid in uterus with CL present No antibiotics warranted in cattle – localised infection responds very well to PGF - How long standing this is – lots of fibrin, hard – if calved 5-6< months ago – uterine contraction to expel purulent - These animals need to be culled if long standing – no improvement after 3 treatments PGF cull

Answer 21

Ovarian cyst – follicular cyst – GnRH or progesterone or both - Manual rupture is an option but not recommended - A lot will self resolve – early lactation could rescan following well to see if re- cycling - PGF not appropriate as no luteal tissue Not recommended to serve to that ovulation – oocyte may have been sitting and of poor quality – serve at next oestrus Cyst – enlarged 25mm diameter< and present for more than 10days and not cycling (Luteal cyst comes from CL – 4-5mm border from CL (same echogenicity of CL)) – PG Cavitated cyst – ratio of luteal tissue to fluid higher to luteal – CL, fluid – luteal cyst

Answer 22

Environmental - housed/outdoors, flooring, other activities Health - ability to stand (lameness), oestrus cycle (cystic ovarian disease), preganancy Breed - Bos indicus shorter heat than bos taurus Production - high yielding have shorter heat

Answer 23

Missing cows showing oestrus - not showing oestrus, or inadequate training Correct oestrus but too few cows - time constraints, poor lighting Incorrect ID of oestrus - inadequate training

Answer 24

Improved staffing More time More training Improved environment Improvements for cows to show oestrus Improvements for people to see oestrus Oestrus detection aids Synchronisation protocols Removes need to observe oestrus if fixed time AI used Provides narrower time frame over which oestrus needs observing if service to observed oestrus used

Answer 25

Pedometers, accelerometers Tail chalk Heat patch

Answer 26

Bulls that cannot inseminate cow - vasectomy, epididymectomy, penile alterations May be combined with raddle marker May miss cows - can become focussed on one cow Can lose intrest with failure to breed Health and safety concerns

Answer 27

>2.3 litters/sow/year

Answer 28

Raddle markers - different colours every 17 days

Answer 29

>80% - first service submission

Answer 30

Short return Inaccurate heat detection Or follicular cysts

Answer 31

Normal return, correct oestrus detection

Answer 32

Abnormal return Inaccurate heat detection

Answer 33

Return after missed heat

Answer 34

Multiple missed heats Foetal death

Answer 35

Proportion of serves leading to a pregnancy Target 35-50% Associated with milk yield Higher targets for lower yielding herds

Answer 36

Nutrition - energy balance, micronutrients, SARA, excess protein AI related - technique, semen quality, semen storage, thawing and handling, timing of AI Disease - lameness, herd level disease (IBR, BVD, lepto), uterine bacterial disease, venereal (campylobacter) Bull - true infertility, lameness, lack of libido

Answer 37

Genetic - complex vertebral malformation, dyschondroplasia Nutritional - mineral/trace element deficiency Traumatic - kick/crush injury or transport, hyperthermia, twinning Toxic - nitrate/nitrite poisoning, poisonous plants - hemock Iatrogenic - prostaglandin/dexamethasone

Answer 38

Bacteria - leptospira, salmonella, bacillus licheninformis, brucella abortus (notifiable), trueperlla pyogenes Viral - BVD, IBR Protozoal - neospora caninum Fungal - Aspergillus

Answer 39

Public health - zoonoses Economic impact Establish significance Statutory requirement - Brucellosis order

Answer 40

Placenta, stomach contents, spleen, hind brain, kidney Placenta, brain, lung, trachea, liver, spleen, kidney, thyroid, heart

Answer 41

Decide an intervention figure Farm history - closed, vaccinations, dam health, previous test results, herd disease status, current husbandary policies Manage expectations - foetus quality, client aims, current controls, previous investigation

Answer 42

Any infections / inflammatory process leading to sufficient prostaglandin release to cause regression of corpus luteum. Post enteritis - Salmonella / Johne’s disease; Post pneumonia due to lungworm / Pasteurella spp

Answer 43

Enzootic abortion - chlamydia abortus * Gram negative intracellular bacteria * Infection is oral and animals infected before or during pregnancy may abort * Causes abortion typically in the last 3 weeks of gestation. * Organism spread in aborted material and venereal fluids. * Some ewes become carriers and may excrete organism in their faeces. v not common but can happen ZOONOTIC

Answer 44

Toxoplasma * Protozoal parasite – infection is through ingestion of oocysts shed in at faeces. * Cats are definitive host – , sheep (and other mammals) are intermediate hosts. * Infection in non-pregnant sheep results in immunity. * Causes infertility, mummification, stillbirth and abortion depending on stage of gestation and infective dose ZOONOTIC

Answer 45

Gram negative bacteria spread by carrier sheep or wildlife vectors * Infection during pregnancy results in abortion 7-25 days later, followed by strong immunity * See abortions in the last 6 weeks gestation and weak lambs born alive. May see diarrhoea as well as abortions. Up to 25% of ewes may abort in naïve flocks. * Can see waves of disease every 4-5 years as immunity wanes in individuals and through addition of naïve animals to the flock. * Venereal spread not a feature (as in cattle – Campylobacter fetus venerealis) * Vaccines not licensed in the UK Aborted material is a source of infection for other ewes and has a normal gross appearance, but foetal livers may have areas of grey necrosis

Answer 46

History Lambing dates Management Nutritional status Any previous problems or poor scanning results Recent stressful events How many abortions Are ewes systemically sick Gross lesions EAE Thickening of the placenta between cotyledons (placentitis) and brown exudate. Toxoplasma Dark cotyledons and white speckles of necrosis. Inter-cotyledonary area grossly normal. Laboratory testing Ideally submit foetus and placenta. If not possible submit: Placenta section (incluing cotyledonary and non- cotyledonary areas) Foetal fluid (from thorax or abdomen) Foetal stomach contents Spleen Serology

Answer 47

Isolate ewe - not required for toxo but wise Treat systemic disease Dont foster on lambs - esp ewe lambs that may be kept as replacements Mark ewes so can do serology at later date Maintain good hygiene and biosecurity Highlight zoonotic risk to farmer Future actions - EAE - purchase accredited disease free stock and keep seperate until after first lambing Toxo - prevent transmission via the definitive host - i.e. keep cats out of feed stores VACCINATe

Answer 48

Oxytetracycline can help maintain the placenta in ewes infected with Chlamydophila abortus to try and allow lambs to be born alive, as long as it is given after 90 days (when the placenta starts to deteriorate) and before day 126 (3 weeks before lambing) * If there are ewes that may have been infected and are not yet at day 126 then Oxytetracycline is an option. * If there are ewes 6-8 weeks off lambing (day 91-105) a dead vaccine (Inmeva) could be used. (Inmeva not recommended during last month of gestation) * If there are ewes closer to lambing (<3w) they may pick up C.abortus this year and abort next year. Can give live vaccine pre-tupping next year (will reduce abortions but not prevent), or use antibiotics at day 91-129 in next gestation. * Once a fully implemented vaccination protocol is in place antibiotics shouldn’t be required.

Answer 49

Reduced welfare Reduced production on subsequent lactation and calf's first lactation Stillbirth Dam death Post-partum problems - RFM, metritis, injuries Manual correction and deliver per vaginum - only without feto-maternal disproportion - malpresentations and soft tissue obstructions - epidural Caesarean section - feto-maternal disproportion, malpresentation, breech, elective - not suitable if rotten calf Foetotomy - foetus must be dead - epidural and partial or total division- risk of iatrogenic injury, can take long time, requires training Euthanasia of dam+/- foetus

Answer 50

Hydrallantois Excess fluid accumulation in the allantois 85-90% of bovine cases Placental origin Foetus normal Comes after mid gestation - failure in production and absorption, reduced placentomes, prognosis guarded to poor - cull if survives Clinical signs Bilateral abdominal distention - symmetrical uncomfortable Inappetant Reduced/absent rumen function - due to compression Recumbency Tight uterine wall palpable per rectum Hydramnion Excess fluid accumulation in the amnion ~10% of bovine cases Foetal origin Foetal abnormalities present Occasionally both occur together Failure of swallowing or digestion - dam repro prognosis is reasonable Less sick cow May go undiagnosed until parturition - large volume of thick, syrupy fluid - foetal abnormalities Treatment Induce/terminate pregnancy - PGF2a/steroids Replacement fluids - prevent hypovolaemia, correct electrolyte disturbances Euthanasia - salvage slaughter if fit to travel Trochar and drain - rapid reaccumulation if allantois - replacement fluids to cow

Answer 51

Limb ankylosis Liveborn unable to stand - euthanasia Foetotomy or C section Schmallenburg

Answer 52

Inside out foetus Rare, fatal - likely genetic Fetotomy or C section Care not to confuse with uterine rupture

Answer 53

Bulldog calf - short legs, domed head, brachygnathia inferior - undershot jaw Dexters, holsteins, jerseys - likely genetic, other breeds reported Does not always = dystocia

Answer 54

Increase in CSF volume - domed head Calves born alive may have neuro deficits Teratogenic viruses - BVD, BTV, Akabane (not UK) May be mixed congenitals Mild cases may calve down fine Severe may need to remove head at foetotomy

Answer 55

Teratogen - agent causing foetal abnormalities or death Zygote - affected by chromosomal or genetic abnormalities - often result in embryonic death Embyro - affected by envirnmental and infectious agents - most high risk for abnormalities Foetus - more resistant to environmental teratogens but structures that develop late are still susceptible to being affected - palate

Answer 56

Weight - therefore heifers can conceive to mis mating - uncastrated youngstock, bulls running, entire males escpaing Poor heifer growth and increased risk of dystocia Could wait and see - Csection likely needed - elective or induce parturition, or terminate Will give permanently small cow - she wont catch up on weight after sharing nitrients

Answer 57

Prostaglandin - PGF2a Lysis of CL - pregnancy loss - progesterones needed ot maintain pregnancy <100 days gestation maximal changes >90% 101-150 - moderate chance ~60% >150 days - low chance <40% - placenta is source of progesterone >270 days - induce parturition to live calf Abortion occurs within 7 days if given <100 days gestation Glucocorticoid steroids - Reduces placental secretion of progesterone - pregnancy loss - Most effective in last month of gestation - Can also be used after day 270 to induce parturition - live calf Dexamethasone 20-30mg Can be repeated For late gestation >150 days give dexamethasone and prostaglandin - reduced progesterone from placenta and CL - increased success Both drugs increase risk of RFM No other adverse effects noted

Answer 58

Uterine - Post partum - Emergency - Life threatening - Cotyledons visible Cervical/vaginal - Pre-partum - occasionally in oestrus - Not emergency - Not life threatening - usually Grading 1 - small intermitten vaginal prolapse only when animal lays down 2 - continuous vaginal prolapse - can rapidly progress to grade 3 - bladder may be included 3 - vagina and cervix continuously prolapsed with exposure of mucus plug which may liquify allowing ascending infection 4 - long standing grade 3 prolapse resulting in necrosis and fibrosis of mucosa may lead to peritonitis

Answer 59

Hypocalcaemia - reduced uterine tone Difficult calving - dystocia - calving assistance - calving injury

Answer 60

limited exercise increased abdominal pressure - fat, more lambs heriditary hypocalcaemia

Answer 61

Epidural Gravity - if recumbent - frog leg them. if standing go flat or downhill Clean prolapse Apply firm cranial pressure to vagina with flat hand evert and replace Buhner suture Pain relief and maybe antibiotics

Answer 62

Ruptured bladder - secondary to urethral occlusion Ringwomb - failure of cervix to fully open at parturition - may need C section Ascending infection - placentitis and foetal death - grade 3 and 4

Answer 63

Epidural Gravity - frog legged or downhill Remove placenta and clean prolapsed uterus Start at vulva and use fists to massage back Ensure horns fulled everted - wine bottle or warm water/saline Calcium and oxytocin + pain relief and antibiotics

Answer 64

Haemorrhage rupture of uterine artery within broad ligament - Avoid excessive movement of animal - Careful handling of everted uterus Metritis Reduced susequent reproductive performance Stretch can act as haemostasis so will not know if ruptured vessels until begin trying to replace - WARN OF THIS

Answer 65

Presents with prolonged 1st stage labour/failure of progression Early 2nd stage or late 1st stage parturition - very occasionally in late gestation Twist can range from <90 degrees to 720 Diagnosis on folds palpable in vagina - in direction of torsion Rectal exam - broad ligament stretched across uterus dorsal aspect - ligament stretched in direction of torsion ventral aspect - ligament stretched ventrally away from torsion about 2/3 cases are anticlockwise Correction/treatment options Manual derotation - Only if you can feel calf feet Grasp calf feet and swing calf until flips over Deliver calf per-vaginum C sec may still be needed Roll cow - deliver per vaginum or C sec How to roll Cast using Reuffs method Roll in same direction as twist as viewed from behind Anticlockwise - left twist - cast onto left side and roll in anticlockwise Clockwise - right twist - cast onto right and roll clockwise Board across belly can stabilise uterus

Answer 66

If foetus will not pass through vulva - Oversized, stenotic/inadequate relaxed - Aids foetal passage - Prevents uncontrolled tearing 10 or 2 oclock incision Epidural Start at mucocutaneous junction Dorsolateral direction - oblique Up to 10 cm Do NOT make at 12 oclock Close with epidural if not already Absorbable sutures Simple continuous Mucosal layer does not need sutures

Answer 67

Damage form foetus - careful assistance - dont rush, lube, episiotomy Minor tears of vulva are fine Minor vaginal tears - leave to heal by secondary intention Moderate tears resulting in prolapse of bladder or perivaginal fat can be sutured Grading 1st - skin and mucosa of vagina, vestibule, vulva affected rarely requires surgery 2nd - full thickness tear of the vagina/vestibulle/vulva but not rectal wall or anus Some disruption of fibromusclar tissues separating vagina and rectum may occur 3rd - Full thickness tear of the vagina/vestibule/vulva as well as rectal wall+/- anus. Complete disruption of recto-vestibular shelf resulting in a wide opening between the rectum and vagina. rectovaginal fistula may be present# 1st 2nd degree - not emergency - leave and reassess a few days post calving - most heal by secondary intention 2nd degree - may result in faecal contamination of vagina over time - increased endometritis risk - reduced fertility - Can be managed by caslick procedure 3rd degree - delay surgery for 6-8 weeks - allow epithelialisation of defect - swelling resolve and identify normal architecture - Immediate surgery <4 hours post calving also possible but poorer outcomes Advise to consider cull

Answer 68

Reduced risk through careful calving management Range from mild venous ooze to several arterial bleeds - Mild will self resolve - Moderate uterine endometrial bleeding - oxytocin - stimulate myometral contraction - Arterial bleeds - emergency - digital occlusion if end can be found pack vagina as tight as possible - clean bedsheets and towels Locate offending artery and clamp with haemostats for 3 days - stitch in to avoid losing Pack tightly Leave for 3 days Guarded prognosis exlap is option - risks Possible sequelae - Hypovolaemic shock - fluids and blood transfusion if >10 L lost If bleeding into abdomen - sudden collapse post calving - no external bleeding, hypovolaemic, train to check mm colour

Answer 69

* Has he ever been used successfully? How long ago? * How old is he? * How many females has he been with and when? * Were they in good breeding condition? * Did females breed successfully with other males or A.I.? * Is he home-bred or bought/hired in? When? * Has he had febrile disease or treatment recently?

Answer 70

Physical ailment may result in sub-fertility and infertility. Injury or disease may cause an infertility which appears as a subfertility if it affects the male part way through a breeding cycle. * Whole animal clinical exam not just the reproductive system * Observe from a distance – lameness, posture, demeanour * TPR and BCS * Teeth to check age/alignment * Eyes check for cataracts * Brisket – check for sores – will not mount with sore brisket * Legs check range of movement and any indication of pain in legs as well as feet

Answer 71

BCS 2 or less - unsatisfactory - unlikely to peform adequately during intensive breeding More than 4 - may suffer poor semen quality - fat deposition in scrotum - thermo-regulation problem

Answer 72

Increased risk of lameness due to hock, stifle, or hip pathology - young bulls with this should be avoided

Answer 73

Swollen hocks due to excessive synovial fluid are not uncommon in intensively reared young bulls less than 2 years old. * Distension of the hock joint may be caused by osteochondrosis which if mild may not be causing any lameness. Progression to osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is possible in some bulls so bulls with swollen hocks and lameness are not suitable for breeding

Answer 74

22.1% had at least one physical abnormality * Corkscrews * Interdigital fibromas * Feet and leg abnormalities that did not cause lameness were not significantly associated with semen quality but may affect libido (hereditary!) * Only 4 of 17 lame bulls had satisfactory semen

Answer 75

* Scrotal shape: straight sided, normal (pendulous), wedge-shaped * Testis should move easily within the scrotum, if not then adhesions are indicators of previous infection and inflammation Orchitis (firm/painful), NB. Brucella Ovis in rams is notifiable and causes orchitis as primary symptom * Dermatitis: Chorioptic mange common cause of scrotal dermatitis in rams * Scrotal circumference is a critical component of PBE of bulls as the SC measurement is highly correlated to paired testes weight, daily sperm production and semen quality. * The SC measurement at 1-2 yrs of age in bulls is moderately to highly heritable. Bulls with above average SC reach puberty earlier and this trait can be passed to female offspring. * In the UK BCVA Bull PBE certificate bulls can pass SC standards for certification if they achieve the relevant breed standards for age. For most breeds this will be similar or indeed greater than the SFT standards but for others, SC standards may be lower (eg British Blue, Limousin). * NB – rams should have scrotal circumference >33cm, or >30cm for a ram lamb. Over 30 for 12-15 months Over 34cm for >24 months * Hypoplasia – bilateral or unilateral. Congenital can be due to abnormality of blood supply (Belgian Blue bulls) * Hard and possibly small due to post-traumatic scarring or fibrosis/calcification with age * Soft due to tubular atrophy (including non- breeding season) * Absent – cryptorchid * Rotated – stallion. Not significant. * Enlarged – neoplasia, especially older dogs * ULTRASOUND can help diagnosis

Answer 76

Conditions of the epididymis * Lumpy, esp. ascending infection (mainly ram-epididymitis), blockage (spermatocoele) * Floppy, small, possibly displaced cauda * Absence (segmental aplasia of mesonephric duct) * Don’t just measure; palpate!

Answer 77

* Penile rupture/haematoma * Preputial laceration/avulsion * Prolapse of prepuce * Urolithiasisis – crystals on preapical hair * Absent musculature in bulls/Too tight musculature can prevent intromission – hard to palpate * Phimosis (can’t get out) and paraphimosis (can’t get back) * Infectious balanitis * Trauma and foreign bodies

Answer 78

* Corkscrew penis in bulls * Trauma – all species, but especially stallion * Rupture at the sigmoid flexure – ruminants * Papillomas and other tumours – sometimes self-cure; can often be ligated in bulls; Squamous cell carcinoma at urethral orifice in stallions, fibroblastic sarcoids on penile/preputial skin, Transmissible Venereal Granuloma in dogs. * Persistent frenulum * ‘Pizzle rot’ – Rams - Corynebacterium renale:grows in the alkaline environment caused by the high urinary urea content of rams on high protein diets (posthitis)

Answer 79

Examination * Digital in Ram * Rectal in bull/stallion * Ultrasound Conditions * Seminal vesiculitis – typically yearling bulls; can become refractory to treatment; diagnose & treat early. * Tulathromycin weekly for 6 weeks; * Meloxicam by injection alternate days for first 2 weeks.

Answer 80

Cattle: Viral * IBR, BVD, EBL, Bluetongue Bacterial * Campylobacter, Brucella, TB, Lepto, Johne’s, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma * Protozoal * Trichomonas Anything resulting in pyrexia Any febrile condition or treatment with cortisone is likely to result in reduced semen quality 4-6 weeks after fever/treatment

Answer 81

Sheep: Viral * Bluetongue and possible Schmallenberg. Bacterial * Brucella ovis (notifiable), possible Johne’s, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma Anything resulting in pyrexia Any febrile condition or treatment with cortisone is likely to result in reduced semen quality 4-6 weeks after fever/treatment

Answer 82

Artificial vagina - ruminants, stallions, boars Digital manipulation - boars Electroejaculation - most common in rams and bulls

Answer 83

Rams are seasonal, bulls are not * Rams have higher ‘workload’ ewe:ram ratio (up to 120 ewes per ram for some breeds) * Most infertility in rams can be detected from the physical exam, with bulls, semen examination almost always required * Rams - Semen collection by electro-ejaculator is painful in rams and must only be used when absolutely necessary not as a routine test. Analgesia is recommended and collection via artificial vagina is recommended to provide a more representative sample without the welfare concerns

Answer 84

* Regular testing of bulls on stud (often monthly while producing) * All semen must be frozen and is subject to 28-day quarantine period before distribution BUT * For domestic use, bulls can be collected on farm and only bTB, Brucella and EBL tests are required by law (enzootic bovine leukosis)

Answer 85

* Good microscope * Warm stage – essential to avoid cold shock to sperm * Warm slides * Good smears Gross examination, Volume , Concentration, Abnormalities * Volume = 0.5-2.5ml relate to ram age, size and breed, testicle size * Colour = Concentration + Contamination * white – yellow = normal. * brownish = blood, * greenish = Pseudomonas aeruginosa, * clots or mucus = pus and inflammation. * Density = 2500 – 5000 million sperm/ml (use of EEJ can result in a sample more dilute than would have been collected with AV) * Motility = 70 – 95 % Gross Motility * Gross motility is assessed by placing a 5-10mm drop of the fresh semen sample on a clean warmed slide and examining under low power brightfield magnification. * Gross motility is scored subjectively on a five point scale with the following descriptors. * Gross motility depends on three factors: concentration, % progressively motile sperm and speed of progression of sperm. 1 - no swirl - generalised oscillation of individual sperm only 2 - very slow distinct swirl 3 - slow distinct swirl 4 - moderate fast distinct swirl. Dark waves 5 - fast, distinct swirls with continuous dark waves Progressive Motility * After gross motility has been scored, a small drop (2-4mm) of semen is placed on a clean warm slide and covered with a warmed cover slip. * Examination under x 200 - x400 magnification will allow an estimation of % progressive forward motility * The standard required to pass the semen examination section of the BCVA PBE certificate is a progressive motility of > 60% . As well as having a minimum of 60% progressive motility, the semen sample must have a minimum of 70% morphologically normal sperm to pass the semen examination section. * Bulls with >20% nuclear (head) defects in a morphology counts should also be deemed unsatisfactory. * The assessment of sperm morphology must be done in all cases even when motility is excellent as some sperm defects do not impair motility but have significant effect on fertilising capacity eg.nuclear vacuoles. Sperm Morphology * To make a smear a small 5-6 mm drop of eosin-nigrosin stain is placed at one end of a warm, frosted-end slide and using a fine dropper or insulin syringe a small drop of semen is mixed with the stain. * After a short period the smear is made by pulling the drop of stain/semen along the slide with the edge of another slide * Morphology counts must be done under x1000 oil immersion magnification either with stained slides and brightfield microscopy or using fresh, wet (formol saline killed) preparations and phase contrast microscopy Proximal cytoplasic droplets - should be shed during epididymal transport Detached heads - sperm accumulation - could be cleared after several ejaculates or may be accessory sex gland disease Distal midpiece reflex/bent tail - comes from sperm maturation in epididymis Coiled tails - midpiece abnormality Distal cytoplasmic droplets - no reduction in fertility Nuclear vacuoles - large vacuoles - significant effect on fertility Foreign cells - Epithelial - inflammation of accessory sex gland or urethra - WBC - infection or vesiculitis of accessory sex gland - Bacteria - Infection of accessory sex glands or contamination - Spheroids -spermatogenic epithelial cells form seminiferous tubules - degeneration or hypoplasia

Answer 86

Results of Semen Analysis Satisfactory if: * Progressive motility of >60% * Normal sperm morphology count of >70% * Absence of significant numbers of foreign cells such as leucocytes

Answer 87

* Stress - pain, hunger, cold * Heat - obesity, scrotal abnormality, climate, fever * Season - photoperiod, nutrition, temperature * Hereditary - sperm defects, testis size * Puberty - resembles disturbed spermatogenesis * Toxicity - zearalenone (mycotoxin), bacterial toxins * Nutritional - protein, vitamin A-, Se-deficiency

Answer 88

Why? Remember hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis Sperm production: * Testosterone dependent * Testosterone is reduced by: stress, cortisol, dexamethasone, exogenous oestrogen

Answer 89

3 weeks pre to 3 weeks post calving

Answer 90

Post calving Lactation Uterine involution Return to cyclicity Regeneration of endometrium Efficient control of uterine bacteria

Answer 91

Uterine involution 3-6 weeks Lochia - normal for 23 days - red brown- white discharge, lacks odour Late gestation immunosuppression continues in early post partum Around calving physical barriers to infection are compromised

Answer 92

The non expulsion of foetal membranes beyond 24 hours post calving Normal is within 6 hours of calving Placental physiology: * Cotyledonary placenta * Foetal cotelydon + maternal caruncle = placentome * Collagen links interface together * Breakdown of theses links = factor in placental separation * Facilitated by relaxin secretion and decline of progesterone Production losses * 753kg milk/lactation * Reproductive disorders * delayed uterine involution and cyclicity * longer time to 1st service * increased service/conception * lower pregnancy rates * Increased culling risk * Increased likelihood to develop secondary health problems * metritis, endometritis, ketosis, displaced abomasum, mastitis...

Answer 93

Induced parturition Shortened gestation Infectious disease - i.e. BVD C section Dystocia Fetotomy - Generalised uterine trauma Twinning Nutritional deficiency - vitamin E, selenium, NEB Abortion Immunosuppression - failure to switch off immuno protective mechanisms from pregnancy Flunixin around calving

Answer 94

History and clinical signs Vaginal exam Manual removal - 5-7 days Risks haemorrhage, tearing No benefit on repro performance or milk yield Systemic antibiotics - systemically ill - amoxicillin 3-5 days - Could leave - usually expelled 2- 11 days If requires any pressure to pull - leave them and tie them up to tail to stop standing on them Use appropriate antibiotic milk withhold - if pyrexic, reduced milk yield, off food

Answer 95

Placenta usually expelled within 6 hours Retained if >18 hours Relatively uncommon Post c-section or dystocia Selenium or vit A deficiency Infectious abortion Obesity of dam Hypocalcaemia

Answer 96

Clinical metritis Puerperal metritis

Answer 97

Clinical metritis - Not systemically ill - Abnormally enlarged uterus - Purulent uterine discharge - Within 21 days post partum Puerperal metritis - Systemic signs of metritis - decreased milk yield, dull, inappetence, signs of toxaemia - Fever >39.5 Abnormally enlarged uterus Fetid watery red-brown discharge Within 21 days post partum - usually <10 days Metritis - infection of all layers of uterus

Answer 98

Following abnormal stage 1 or 2 of labour Severe dystocia, prolonged traction, damage to birth canal Uterine inertia Premature calving and abortion Induced calving Twins RFM Dairy>beef In sheep Often associated with - dead foetus/es, assisted delivery with poor hygiene, uterine prolapse

Answer 99

Clinical signs of illness and straining Foetid uterine discharge on clinical exam Graded based on clinical signs in cow 1 - abnormally enlarged uterus, purulent discharge, without systemic ill health signs 2 - abnormally enlarged uterus, purulent dishcharge, with systemic ill - decreased milk yield, dull, pyrexic 3 - puerperal metritis or toxic, abnormal enlarged uterus, purulent uterine discharge signs of toxaemia - inappetence, cold extremities, depression and/or collapse

Answer 100

Do not treat grade 1 Systemic - intrauterine alone is insufficient - amoxicillin 3-5 days Supportive therapy - TLC, NSAIDs, fluids, calcium borogluconate Uterine lavage - saline - peritonitis risk and toxaemia risk Grade 3 - high risk of sepsis, peritonitis, UTI and reproductive adhesions, endocarditis, pneumonia, polyarthritis

Answer 101

Clinical endometritis - Purulent uterine discharge - >50% pus >21 days after parturition - OR mucopurulent uterine discharge ~50% pus 50% mucus >26 days after parturition - White Subclinical endometritis - >18% neutrophils in uterine cytology sample 21-33 days after parturition OR - >10% neutrophils in uterine cytology sample collected 34-47 days after parturition Uterine discharge not yet seem

Answer 102

Trauma Hygiene - calving environemnt, post partum housing, personnel Metabolism - NEB Herd size - larger herds

Answer 103

No gold standard Transrectal palpation +- US Vaginal exam incl cervix - manual or metricheck Cytology on cervical swab or lumen flush Uterine biopsy History Vaginoscope Rectal - Delayed uterine involution Doughy uterus Palpation alone not sensitive or specific Rectal US + vaginal exam Snowglobe appearance on US - flocculant fluid Common pathogens E.coli T. pyogenes F. Necrophorum

Answer 104

Two problems - Spontaneous self cure - Imperfect diagnostics Little merit to C&S Intrauterine infusion of antibiotics - limited value - Risk injury, peritonitis, septicaemia Treat only > 3 weeks calved PGF2a Stimulate uterine defences - luteolysis - reduced progesterone, return to oestrus - increased tone + open cervix Withdrawal 0 hours milk, 1 day meat Intrauterine antibiotics Cefapirin - metricure  Clinical endometritis:  Increases the interval to first insemination by 11 days  Delays conception by 32 days  Cows with clinical endometritis between 20 and 33 days post partum:  1.7 times more likely to be culled for reproductive failure Reduced fertility: * Reduced chance of conception * Increased risk of cull

Answer 105

Purulent or mucopurulent material within uterine lumen, causing uterine distension, in the presence of a closed cervix and functional corpus luteum Uncommon in cattle and small ruminants Diagnosis with transrectal US and palpation, history of anoestrus Treat - PGF2a - luteolytic, expulsion of exudate and bacterial clearance, needs repeating in ~20% cases

Answer 106

Must work Against gram +ve and gram –ve, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria In microaerophilic uterine environment In an evenly distributed fashion across uterine lumen, with good penetration in endometrial layers Without inhibiting uterine defence mechanisms Without traumatising endometrium (e.g. not cause irritation) Without reducing infertility by producing irreversible changes In a cost-effective manner With a known excretion pattern so appropriate withdrawal times can be applied

Answer 107

Rings Burdizzo - crushes spermatic cord - testicle should atrophy and scrotum remain Rings only without anaesthetic in first 7 days - more than two months needs vet for calves Lambs - 7 days - anaesthesia and vet required if over 3 months

Answer 108

* Orchiectomy (orchidectomy or castration) * Vasectomy * Crushing of spermatic cord * Inducing ischaemic necrosis of scrotum * (Injection of irritants into testis) – typically hypertonic saline

Answer 109

Surgical castration * Local anaesthesia Consider: * Age and size * Time of year * Clean environment * Antibiotics (experience) * NSAIDs * Exercise * Safety vet/handler/animal (sedation may be helpful) Surgical castration * Open Technique by either: * Lateral incisions into each side of scrotum or removal of distal scrotum * Scalpel/Newberry knife * Haemostasis either: * Twisting and pulling * Emascuators * (rarely ligation) Twisting method Restrain animal in a safe position (crush or 1 or 2-person restraint for smaller calves) for you and the animal. * Ask assistant to firmly lift the tail. * Scrub and disinfect the injection site (particularly for bloodless castration) Administer local block: inject 1-5ml (dependent on size) of local anaesthetic under the skin (SC, only with surgical castration) and 1-5 ml (dependent on size) in both spermatic cords (for both bloodless and surgical castration). * You can inject local anaesthetic straight in the testicle (instead of the cords) but this is only preferred if the testicle is larger than a ‘small fist’ size. Wait minimum of 5 minutes before proceeding. * Provide NSAIDs Pull the scrotum ventrally with one hand and... * remove the bottom 3rd of the scrotum using a scalpel or * place your hand on the scrotum above testicles and make an incision through the scrotal skin of each testicle, and through the vaginal tunic. Separate the vaginal tunic from the testicle by tearing the ligament attaching the vaginal tunic to the testicle * Push the remains of the vaginal tunic up the cord, dorsally away from the testis. Pull the testis down slightly: it will “give” about 1-2cm. Twist the cord repeatedly (either holding testicle or using artery forceps), occasionally stretching the cord slightly until it becomes thin and snaps * Possibly use an emasculator on larger calves (>3-6 months). Remember: ‘nut to nut’! Apply and hold on for a count of 60 seconds. Remove tissue visible outside the scrotum and pull the scrotal edges down to help obscure any internal material.

Answer 110

Castration in other species Goats * Similar to sheep * Clostridial disease vaccination even more important Pigs * Welfare of Farmed Animals Regulations 2003: Castration after day 7 of life can only be performed by a veterinary surgeon * Open surgical/twist and pull technique usual

Answer 111

Ram, billy goat (buck, hob) * Local anaesthesia (or GA) over scrotal neck and spermatic cords * Incision at cranial aspect of each scrotum through skin, dartos, fascia (single cranial mid-scrotal incision also used by some veterinarians) * Bluntly dissect cord * Palpate vas as thick walled tube in non-vascular portion * Incise tunic * Pull out loop of vas * Two ligatures and remove segment between * Close skin Ram vasectomy video – this short video details the process really nicely.

Answer 112

General physical exam Examination of external genitalia Semen sample on single day Vet decision - can be used with confidence, not able to decide now, not suitable for breeding Sample - a good ram can always produce a bad sample Few sheep will be definite fail - be very sure before condemning Could be not totally perfect but still fertile - cant affort to cull all of these but too risky to have in high pressure Great tup - physically top form, perfect genitalia, good scrotal capacity, good semen quality Must be the most pampered animals on the farm: * Ideal BCS * No lameness * No disease * No recent treatments with corticosteroids or some antibiotics (oxytet can reduce sperm count) * Good teeth * Good posture * No brisket sores

Answer 113

No only technique - can use CIRDs and sponges Approximately a 2 week advancement might be achieved using a teaser * A tighter lambing period would be expected after using a teaser 1:100 ewes, repalce teaser after 14 days with fertile ram at 1:20 ewes - most ewes will be served at either 18 or 25 days after the teaser if first introduced

Reproduction Flashcards

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