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Farm animal > Reproduction > Flashcards

Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

Caruncles

A

Placental attachement site

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2
Q

What is in follicle

A

Contains oocyte (egg)
Fluid filled - anechoic on US
Secretes oestradiol that drives oestrus
Multiple stages of development

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3
Q

What is corpus luteum

A

Highly vascularised transient endocrine gland
Solid - homogenous, medium echogenicity
Progestone production

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4
Q

HPO axis - hypothalamus pituitary ovarian axis

A

Hypothalamus - produced GnRH
Anterior pituitary produced LH and FSH in response to GnRH
LH stimulates ovulation and growth of follicle - CL will produce progesterone
FSH stimulates growth of follicle - producing oestradiol
CL will produce oxytocin - stimulates uterus to produce PGF2a at a specific point in cycle - CL regress - negative feedback on CL

Oestradiol - negative feedback on pituitary for LH and FSH at low levels
- Positive feedback on Hypothalamus at high levels

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5
Q

Oestrus cycle of cow

How long
How long luteal phase
What happens

A

21 day oestrus cycle
17 day luteal phase - lifespan of CL
Falling progesterone - gives 3 day proestrus - just before oestrus and just before ovulation
Standing oestrus - 1 day

LH surge mid oestrus
Ovulation occurs 24 hours after LH surge
Therefore ovulation is 12 hours after end of oestrus

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6
Q

Ovarian rebound - return to oestrus post partum

A

Re-initiation of HPO axis
- Pituitary is refractory to GnRH
- FSH secretion initiated due to lack of negative feedback
- Antral follicle wave emerges

Resumption of full ovarian activity
- Increasing sensitivity of gonadotropes to GnRH, leading to
- Increase FSH stimulation of oestradiol
- Increased LH pulse frequency
- Ovulation - silent oestrus
Short first oestrus cycle - often 12 days
Should have had first ovulation within 3-4 weeks post partum

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7
Q

When does anoestrus occur?

A

Gestation
Lactation/presence of offspring - species differences
Seasonality - short or long day breeders

Occurs as a consequence of pathology
- Stress - metabolic or heat
- Ovarian pathologies - cystic ovarian disorders, inactive ovarian activity

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8
Q

Ovarian rebound in the sow

A

Profound suckling effects - early follicular activity but - prolactin suppresses LH thus no ovulation

Return to oestrus
Weaning initiates oestrus and LH surge within 7 days
Affected by length of lactation/timing of weaning

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9
Q

Use of GnRH pharmacologically

A

Short term action
Hastens impending cyclicity/oestrus - lactational anoestrus in cows, post weaning in gilts/sows
Hastens ovulation by inducing LH surge and FSH
Part of synch protocol - fixed time AI
“Force” ovulation/lutenisation of cystic structures

Ovulate 24-30 hours after injection - so inseminate 6 hours after giving

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10
Q

Giving exogenous FSH - pharmacologically

A

Stimulates antral follicle growth
Products - few are FSH specific - use eCG - mainly FSH like activity

Clinical uses
- Ovulation of more follicles than normal - superovulation
- Must administer early in follicular wave for superovulation
Often requires repeated doses
Responses are varied

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11
Q

Exogenous LH - pharmacologically

A

Stimulates final maturation of follicles, lutenisation and luteal support

No LH specific product
Use HCG - binds to LH receptor and has LH like activity
Can induce immunological reaction

Clinical uses - exact effect influenced by dose
- Induce ovulation when animals are in oestrus
- force ovulation when there has been repeated failure of conception in cattle
- Treatment of cystic ovaries in cows and heifers

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12
Q

Exogenous progestogens - use

A

Progesterone - negative feedback effect on HPO axis

Suppress hypothalamic gonadal axis to - induce/syncronise oestrus by administration then withdrawal

Vaginal - sponges ewes, devices cows
Oral - regumate - sows

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13
Q

Prostaglandin F2A

A

Endogenous prostaglandin F2a causes - lysis of mature CL, causing progesterone to decline
Smooth muscle contraction - ecbolic effect on uterus

Exogenous - CL regression (early CLs not responsive)
- Termination of luteal phase to syncronise oestrus
- Induction of abortion
- Induction of parturition
- Ecbolic effect - treatment of chronic metritis, treatment of pyometra if CL is present

Remove CL – progesterone drops – into follicular phase
Need to have a mature CL

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14
Q

Sources of reproductive failure

A

Failure to be bred
Failure to conceive
Pregnancy loss

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15
Q

Sheep breeding season

A

Lambing - spring
Lambs at foot
Dry period - not pregnant or lactating
Breeding/tupping - autumn/winter
Pregnant
lambing

Seasonally polyoestrus

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16
Q

Ewe:ram ratio

A

Ideally >50

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17
Q

Flock replacement rate

A

<23%
No. purchased ewes/ewes put to ram) x 100

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18
Q

Scanning percentage

A

lowland 200%
Upland 175%
Hill 115%

No lambs scanned / no ewes bred ) x 100

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19
Q

Barren ewes

A

<2%

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20
Q

Lambing percentage

A

Lambs born / no ewes bred

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21
Q

Factors affecting repro performance in sheep - ewe factors

A

Failure to breed
- BCS
- General health
- Stage in annual cycle
- Season
- Anatomical/congenital abnormalities
- Errors in synch protocols
- Ram problems

Failure to conceive/maintain pregnancy
- Repro pathology
- Early embryonic death/abortion
- Errors in synch protocol

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22
Q

Factors affecting repro performance - ram factors

A

Failure to breed
- Low/absent libido
- Pathologies of penis/prepuce affecting intromission
- Lameness
- Inexperience
- Too high ewe:ram ratio

Failure to conceive
- Pathologies causing orchitis/epididymitis
- Penile abnormalities
- Inadequate testicular circumference
- Sperm abnormalities

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23
Q

Target calving interval

A

365 days

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24
Q

Cow:bull ratio

A

30-50

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25
Q

Barren cow target

A

<5%

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26
Q

Block calving targets

A

> 65% calve down in 1st 3 weeks
90% calving in 1st 9 weeks

Calculate as expected start date + 3 weeks, and include those calving early (so may be longer than 3 weeks)

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27
Q

Cow gestation time

A

285 days

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28
Q

Sheep gestation time

A

150 days

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29
Q

Age at first breeding for dairy cows

A

13.5 months

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30
Q

Weight at breeding - heifer target

A

397kg

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31
Q

Age at first calving target

A

<24 months

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32
Q

Heifer submission rate

A

Heifers bred/heifers eligible to be bred - target >80%
target >65% in year round adults

Adults in block >95% in 1st 4 weeks

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33
Q

Heifer conception rate

A

Heifers conceived/heifers bred - target >60% in block
Target >35% in year round adults

Adults in block >60%

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34
Q

Heifer fertility efficiency - pregnancy rate

A

Heifer submission rate x heifer conception rate - target >55%
target >25% in year round adults

> 55% adult block calving

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35
Q

Factors affecting reproductive performance in cows - cow factors

A

Failure to breed
- BCS
- General health
- Milk yield - dairy
- Anatomical/congenital abnormalities
- Errors in synch protocols
- Bull problems

Failure to conceive/maintain pregnancy
- Reproductive pathology
- Early embryonic death/abortion
- Errors in synch protocol
- AI errors

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36
Q

Factors affecting reproductive performance in cows - bull factors

A

Failure to breed
- Low/absent libido
- Pathologies of penis/prepuce affecting intromission
- Lameness
- Inexperience
- Too high cow:bull ratio

Failure to conceive
- Pathologies causing orchitis/epididymitis
- Penile abnormalities
- Inadequate testicular circumference
- Sperm abnormalities
- AI errors

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37
Q

Resumption of cyclicity and subsequent fertility - what to consider

A

To achieve 365 calving interval cows need to start breeding before
58DIM and conceive by 81DIM (assuming 280d gestation)

Consider
- Assisted calving
- Negative energy balance
- Metabolic disorders
- Uterine health
- General health - lameness and mastitis

Improved by identification and resolution of underlying issue - use data to help

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38
Q

Effect of negative energy balance on fertility

A

Cows in NEB after calving - adverse effects on resumption of
cyclicity and embryo quality
Related to negative effects of NEB on circulating insulin like growth factors
(IGF-1)
NEB also associated with increased risk of postpartum disease
Affects resumption of cyclicity
Affect uterine environment and health
Managed by ensuring adequate nutrition in the transition period (3
weeks before and 3 weeks after calving)

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39
Q

Effect of oestrus behaviour on fertility

A

Oestrus detection fundamental for efficient reproduction
High yielding cows have shorter oestrus periods (~6hrs) and less
standing time (~22s)
Lower oestradiol concentration
Increased metabolism
Short-term decrease in production if stressed

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40
Q

Basic principles of cycle manipulation in cow

A

1 - induce luteolysis - shorten CL lifespan - induce oestrus sooner
- Prostaglandin

2 - Mimic luteal phase of cycle - induce oestrus when withdrawn
- PRID/CIDR
- Prostaglandin usually also used to ensure no functional CL present

Synch protocols typically use both

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41
Q

Maximising submission rate

A

Submission rate = proportion of cows eligible to be bred that actually
are bred (expressed as %)

Cows that are eligible for breeding:
Those outside the voluntary waiting period
Those that are not pregnant

Therefore submission rate depends on effective identification of cows in oestrus

Synchronisation protocols and fixed time AI
- Theoretically = SR of 100%

Synchronisation protocols and AI to observed oestrus
- Still needs effective oestrus detection

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42
Q

Benefit of fixed time AI

A

Removes need for oestrus detection - therefore all eligible cows should be served - SR of 100%
Can be used to ensure a lot of cows served at same time - seasonal herd or compensate for suboptimal oestrus detection - AYR

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43
Q

Categories of infertility

A

Cycling animals that do not conceive - ovulating but oocyte not being fertilised
- Investigate reasons for non-conception including the male or AI procedure

Animals that are not (or do not appear to be) cycling at all
- Not ovulating at all
- Rule out poor oestrus detection first - are these animals truly in anoestrus - data and clinical exam
- Investigate reasons for true anoestrus

Animals that conceive but do not maintain pregnancy
- Early embryonic death or abortion
- This is more common than 1 and 2 in sheep

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44
Q

Causes for cycling cows that do not conceieve

A

These are the repeat breeding - needing >3 serves before pregnancy

Improper/incorrect insemination - timing, oestrus detection, technique, semen storage
Infectious - uterine infection prior to insemination, at or after breeding - early embryonic death or failure of conceptus
Toxins - mycotoxins, endotoxins - e.coli mastitis
Metabolic/nutritional - negative energy balance, mineral deficiencies
Iatrogenic causes - improper use of hormonal drugs
Sire choice - semen abnormalities

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45
Q

Causes for cows that dont cycle

A

Anoestrus - absence of oestrus cycles

Failure to observe oestrus - not true anoestrus
Metabolic/nutritional - negative energy balance, vitamin and trace element deficiency
Uterine infection - pyometra/endometritis
Pregnancy - will not cycle if preganant - check before PGF2a
Cystic ovarian disease - 70% show anoestrus
Suckling calf at foot - most common cause in beef

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46
Q

Infectious causes of infertility - viral

A

BVD - cattle - early embryonic death, ovarian damage - long returns to service (25-35 days), reduced conception rates

Border disease - Sheep and goats - poor fertility - increased barren rate

IBR (BoHV-1) - Cattle - temporary ovarian necrosis, follicular degeneration - reduced conception rates due to reduced ovulation capacity and reduced oocyte viability

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47
Q

Infectious causes of infertility - bacterial and protozoa

A

Leptospira - cattle (sheen can carry) - poor fertility and EED - possible due to endometrial inflammation
- Present as reduced conception rates and long returns to service

Brucella - all ruminants - poor fertility, epididymitis and orchitis
- Present as reduced conception rates (cattle) increased barren rate (sheep)
Often initially presents as poor conception/barren rates in females

Campylobacter - cattle and sheep
- Endometritis - cattle
- Failure to conceive
- EED - cattle
- Abortion - cattle and sheep
Present as irregular oestrus cycles, repeat breeding - long calving intervals
Returns to oestrus
Long returns to service (25-35d)
Visible abortion

Tritrichonomas - cattle - EED, pyometra and endometritis
Present as - Long returns to service (25-35d)
Identified on clinical exam
Venereal spread

1.5x cycle length often a signs of EED

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48
Q

Cattle pyometra

A

Fluid uterus - pus – pyometra/endometritis
Scan ovaries
CL present
PGF
Pyometra – purulent fluid in uterus with CL present
No antibiotics warranted in cattle – localised infection responds very well to
PGF
- How long standing this is – lots of fibrin, hard – if calved 5-6< months ago –
uterine contraction to expel purulent
- These animals need to be culled if long standing – no improvement after 3
treatments PGF cull

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49
Q

Cattle ovarian cyst

A

Ovarian cyst – follicular cyst – GnRH or progesterone or both
- Manual rupture is an option but not recommended
- A lot will self resolve – early lactation could rescan following well to see if re-
cycling
- PGF not appropriate as no luteal tissue
Not recommended to serve to that ovulation – oocyte may have been sitting
and of poor quality – serve at next oestrus
Cyst – enlarged 25mm diameter< and present for more than 10days and not
cycling
(Luteal cyst comes from CL – 4-5mm border from CL (same echogenicity of
CL)) – PG
Cavitated cyst – ratio of luteal tissue to fluid higher to luteal – CL, fluid – luteal
cyst

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50
Q

What affects the exhibition of oestrus behaviours?

A

Environmental - housed/outdoors, flooring, other activities
Health - ability to stand (lameness), oestrus cycle (cystic ovarian disease), preganancy
Breed - Bos indicus shorter heat than bos taurus
Production - high yielding have shorter heat

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51
Q

What affects the observation of oestrus

A

Missing cows showing oestrus - not showing oestrus, or inadequate training
Correct oestrus but too few cows - time constraints, poor lighting
Incorrect ID of oestrus - inadequate training

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52
Q

How to improve oestrus detection

A

Improved staffing
More time
More training

Improved environment
Improvements for cows to show oestrus
Improvements for people to see oestrus

Oestrus detection aids

Synchronisation protocols
Removes need to observe oestrus if fixed time AI used
Provides narrower time frame over which oestrus needs observing if service to observed oestrus used

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53
Q

Oestrus detection aids

A

Pedometers, accelerometers
Tail chalk
Heat patch

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54
Q

Why use teaser bull?

A

Bulls that cannot inseminate cow - vasectomy, epididymectomy, penile alterations
May be combined with raddle marker
May miss cows - can become focussed on one cow
Can lose intrest with failure to breed
Health and safety concerns

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55
Q

Pig gestation time

A

115 days

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56
Q

How many days from farrowing to weaning - pigs

A

28 days

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57
Q

Target pig litters per year

A

> 2.3 litters/sow/year

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58
Q

How to identify sheep return to service?

A

Raddle markers - different colours every 17 days

59
Q

What is our target for dairy cows being served within 24 days of VWP ending?

A

> 80% - first service submission

60
Q

What does an interservice interval of 0-17 days mean

A

Short return
Inaccurate heat detection
Or follicular cysts

61
Q

What does interservice interval of 18-24 days mean

A

Normal return, correct oestrus detection

62
Q

What does interservice interval of 25-35 days mean

A

Abnormal return
Inaccurate heat detection

63
Q

What does interservice interval of 36-48 days mean

A

Return after missed heat

64
Q

What does interservice interval of 49+ days mean

A

Multiple missed heats
Foetal death

65
Q

What is pregnancy rate - also conception rate

A

Proportion of serves leading to a pregnancy

Target 35-50%

Associated with milk yield
Higher targets for lower yielding herds

66
Q

What goes wrong with pregnancy/conception rate

A

Nutrition - energy balance, micronutrients, SARA, excess protein
AI related - technique, semen quality, semen storage, thawing and handling, timing of AI
Disease - lameness, herd level disease (IBR, BVD, lepto), uterine bacterial disease, venereal (campylobacter)
Bull - true infertility, lameness, lack of libido

67
Q

Non-infectious causes of abortion in cattle

A

Genetic - complex vertebral malformation, dyschondroplasia
Nutritional - mineral/trace element deficiency
Traumatic - kick/crush injury or transport, hyperthermia, twinning
Toxic - nitrate/nitrite poisoning, poisonous plants - hemock
Iatrogenic - prostaglandin/dexamethasone

68
Q

Infectious causes of abortion in cattle

A

Bacteria - leptospira, salmonella, bacillus licheninformis, brucella abortus (notifiable), trueperlla pyogenes
Viral - BVD, IBR
Protozoal - neospora caninum
Fungal - Aspergillus

69
Q

Why investigate abortion?

A

Public health - zoonoses
Economic impact
Establish significance
Statutory requirement - Brucellosis order

70
Q

What samples to take for abortion

A

Placenta, stomach contents, spleen, hind brain, kidney

Placenta, brain, lung, trachea, liver, spleen, kidney, thyroid, heart

71
Q

Herd abortion plan

A

Decide an intervention figure
Farm history - closed, vaccinations, dam health, previous test results, herd disease status, current husbandary policies

Manage expectations - foetus quality, client aims, current controls, previous investigation

72
Q

What causes abortion?

A

Any infections / inflammatory process leading to sufficient prostaglandin release to cause regression of corpus luteum.
Post enteritis - Salmonella / Johne’s disease;
Post pneumonia due to lungworm / Pasteurella spp

73
Q

Abortion in sheep EAE

A

Enzootic abortion - chlamydia abortus
* Gram negative intracellular bacteria
* Infection is oral and animals infected before or during pregnancy may abort
* Causes abortion typically in the last 3 weeks of gestation.
* Organism spread in aborted material and venereal fluids.
* Some ewes become carriers and may excrete organism in their faeces. v not common but can happen

ZOONOTIC

74
Q

Toxoplasma abortion in sheep

A

Toxoplasma
* Protozoal parasite – infection is through ingestion of oocysts shed in at faeces.
* Cats are definitive host – , sheep (and other mammals) are intermediate hosts.
* Infection in non-pregnant sheep results in immunity.
* Causes infertility, mummification, stillbirth and abortion depending on stage of gestation and infective dose

ZOONOTIC

75
Q

Campylobacter jejuni and campylobacter fetus fetus - abortion

A

Gram negative bacteria spread by carrier sheep or wildlife vectors
* Infection during pregnancy results in abortion 7-25 days later, followed by strong immunity
* See abortions in the last 6 weeks gestation and weak lambs born alive. May see
diarrhoea as well as abortions. Up to 25% of ewes may abort in naïve flocks.
* Can see waves of disease every 4-5 years as immunity wanes in individuals and through addition of naïve animals to the flock.
* Venereal spread not a feature (as in cattle – Campylobacter fetus venerealis)
* Vaccines not licensed in the UK

Aborted material is a source of
infection for other ewes and has a
normal gross appearance, but
foetal livers may have areas of
grey necrosis

76
Q

What to ask with sheep abortions?

A

History
Lambing dates
Management
Nutritional status
Any previous problems or
poor scanning results
Recent stressful events
How many abortions
Are ewes systemically sick

Gross lesions
EAE
Thickening of the placenta
between cotyledons
(placentitis) and brown
exudate.
Toxoplasma
Dark cotyledons and white
speckles of necrosis.
Inter-cotyledonary area
grossly normal.

Laboratory testing
Ideally submit foetus and
placenta.
If not possible submit:
Placenta section (incluing
cotyledonary and non-
cotyledonary areas)
Foetal fluid (from thorax or
abdomen)
Foetal stomach contents
Spleen
Serology

77
Q

Immediate control of sheep abortions

A

Isolate ewe - not required for toxo but wise
Treat systemic disease
Dont foster on lambs - esp ewe lambs that may be kept as replacements
Mark ewes so can do serology at later date
Maintain good hygiene and biosecurity
Highlight zoonotic risk to farmer

Future actions
- EAE - purchase accredited disease free stock and keep seperate until after first lambing
Toxo - prevent transmission via the definitive host - i.e. keep cats out of feed stores
VACCINATe

78
Q

Antibiotic use for EAE - enzootic abortion - chlamydia

A

Oxytetracycline can help maintain the placenta in ewes infected with Chlamydophila
abortus to try and allow lambs to be born alive, as long as it is given after 90 days (when
the placenta starts to deteriorate) and before day 126 (3 weeks before lambing)
* If there are ewes that may have been infected and are not yet at day 126 then
Oxytetracycline is an option.
* If there are ewes 6-8 weeks off lambing (day 91-105) a dead vaccine (Inmeva) could be
used. (Inmeva not recommended during last month of gestation)
* If there are ewes closer to lambing (<3w) they may pick up C.abortus this year and abort next year. Can give live vaccine pre-tupping next year (will reduce abortions but not prevent), or use antibiotics at day 91-129 in next gestation.
* Once a fully implemented vaccination protocol is in place antibiotics shouldn’t be required.

79
Q

Effects of dystocia

Options

A

Reduced welfare
Reduced production on subsequent lactation and calf’s first lactation
Stillbirth
Dam death
Post-partum problems - RFM, metritis, injuries

Manual correction and deliver per vaginum - only without feto-maternal disproportion - malpresentations and soft tissue obstructions - epidural
Caesarean section - feto-maternal disproportion, malpresentation, breech, elective - not suitable if rotten calf
Foetotomy - foetus must be dead - epidural and partial or total division- risk of iatrogenic injury, can take long time, requires training
Euthanasia of dam+/- foetus

80
Q

Dropsical condition - dropsy

A

Hydrallantois
Excess fluid accumulation in the allantois
85-90% of bovine cases
Placental origin
Foetus normal
Comes after mid gestation - failure in production and absorption, reduced placentomes, prognosis guarded to poor - cull if survives
Clinical signs
Bilateral abdominal distention - symmetrical
uncomfortable
Inappetant
Reduced/absent rumen function - due to compression
Recumbency
Tight uterine wall palpable per rectum

Hydramnion
Excess fluid accumulation in the amnion
~10% of bovine cases
Foetal origin
Foetal abnormalities present
Occasionally both occur together
Failure of swallowing or digestion - dam repro prognosis is reasonable
Less sick cow
May go undiagnosed until parturition - large volume of thick, syrupy fluid - foetal abnormalities

Treatment
Induce/terminate pregnancy - PGF2a/steroids
Replacement fluids - prevent hypovolaemia, correct electrolyte disturbances
Euthanasia - salvage slaughter if fit to travel
Trochar and drain - rapid reaccumulation if allantois - replacement fluids to cow

81
Q

Arthrogryposis

A

Limb ankylosis
Liveborn unable to stand - euthanasia
Foetotomy or C section
Schmallenburg

82
Q

Schistosomus reflexus

A

Inside out foetus
Rare, fatal - likely genetic
Fetotomy or C section
Care not to confuse with uterine rupture

83
Q

Congenital chondroplasia

A

Bulldog calf - short legs, domed head, brachygnathia inferior - undershot jaw
Dexters, holsteins, jerseys - likely genetic, other breeds reported
Does not always = dystocia

84
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

Increase in CSF volume - domed head
Calves born alive may have neuro deficits
Teratogenic viruses - BVD, BTV, Akabane (not UK)
May be mixed congenitals
Mild cases may calve down fine
Severe may need to remove head at foetotomy

85
Q

Teratogens - on foetus

A

Teratogen - agent causing foetal abnormalities or death
Zygote - affected by chromosomal or genetic abnormalities - often result in embryonic death
Embyro - affected by envirnmental and infectious agents - most high risk for abnormalities
Foetus - more resistant to environmental teratogens but structures that develop late are still susceptible to being affected - palate

86
Q

Puberty is driven by what in cows

A

Weight - therefore heifers can conceive to mis mating - uncastrated youngstock, bulls running, entire males escpaing
Poor heifer growth and increased risk of dystocia

Could wait and see - Csection likely needed - elective or induce parturition, or terminate

Will give permanently small cow - she wont catch up on weight after sharing nitrients

87
Q

How to terminate pregnancy cow

A

Prostaglandin - PGF2a
Lysis of CL - pregnancy loss - progesterones needed ot maintain pregnancy

<100 days gestation maximal changes >90%
101-150 - moderate chance ~60%
>150 days - low chance <40% - placenta is source of progesterone
>270 days - induce parturition to live calf

Abortion occurs within 7 days if given <100 days gestation

Glucocorticoid steroids
- Reduces placental secretion of progesterone - pregnancy loss
- Most effective in last month of gestation
- Can also be used after day 270 to induce parturition - live calf
Dexamethasone 20-30mg
Can be repeated

For late gestation >150 days give dexamethasone and prostaglandin - reduced progesterone from placenta and CL - increased success
Both drugs increase risk of RFM
No other adverse effects noted

88
Q

Comparing uterine and cervical/vaginal prolapse

A

Uterine
- Post partum
- Emergency
- Life threatening
- Cotyledons visible

Cervical/vaginal
- Pre-partum - occasionally in oestrus
- Not emergency
- Not life threatening - usually

Grading
1 - small intermitten vaginal prolapse only when animal lays down
2 - continuous vaginal prolapse - can rapidly progress to grade 3 - bladder may be included
3 - vagina and cervix continuously prolapsed with exposure of mucus plug which may liquify allowing ascending infection
4 - long standing grade 3 prolapse resulting in necrosis and fibrosis of mucosa may lead to peritonitis

89
Q

Uterine prolapse risk factors

A

Hypocalcaemia - reduced uterine tone

Difficult calving
- dystocia
- calving assistance
- calving injury

90
Q

Cervical/vaginal prolapse risk factors

A

limited exercise
increased abdominal pressure - fat, more lambs
heriditary
hypocalcaemia

91
Q

How to replace vaginal prolapse

A

Epidural
Gravity - if recumbent - frog leg them. if standing go flat or downhill

Clean prolapse
Apply firm cranial pressure to vagina with flat hand
evert and replace
Buhner suture
Pain relief and maybe antibiotics

92
Q

Complications of vaginal prolapse

A

Ruptured bladder - secondary to urethral occlusion
Ringwomb - failure of cervix to fully open at parturition - may need C section
Ascending infection - placentitis and foetal death - grade 3 and 4

93
Q

Replacing uterine prolapse

A

Epidural
Gravity - frog legged or downhill

Remove placenta and clean prolapsed uterus
Start at vulva and use fists to massage back
Ensure horns fulled everted - wine bottle or warm water/saline
Calcium and oxytocin + pain relief and antibiotics

94
Q

Complications of uterine prolapse

A

Haemorrhage rupture of uterine artery within broad ligament
- Avoid excessive movement of animal
- Careful handling of everted uterus

Metritis

Reduced susequent reproductive performance

Stretch can act as haemostasis so will not know if ruptured vessels until begin trying to replace - WARN OF THIS

95
Q

Uterine torsion

A

Presents with prolonged 1st stage labour/failure of progression
Early 2nd stage or late 1st stage parturition - very occasionally in late gestation

Twist can range from <90 degrees to 720

Diagnosis on folds palpable in vagina - in direction of torsion
Rectal exam - broad ligament stretched across uterus
dorsal aspect - ligament stretched in direction of torsion
ventral aspect - ligament stretched ventrally away from torsion

about 2/3 cases are anticlockwise

Correction/treatment options
Manual derotation
- Only if you can feel calf feet
Grasp calf feet and swing calf until flips over
Deliver calf per-vaginum
C sec may still be needed

Roll cow - deliver per vaginum or C sec

How to roll
Cast using Reuffs method
Roll in same direction as twist as viewed from behind
Anticlockwise - left twist - cast onto left side and roll in anticlockwise
Clockwise - right twist - cast onto right and roll clockwise
Board across belly can stabilise uterus

96
Q

Episiotomy

A

If foetus will not pass through vulva
- Oversized, stenotic/inadequate relaxed
- Aids foetal passage
- Prevents uncontrolled tearing

10 or 2 oclock incision
Epidural
Start at mucocutaneous junction
Dorsolateral direction - oblique
Up to 10 cm
Do NOT make at 12 oclock

Close with epidural if not already
Absorbable sutures
Simple continuous
Mucosal layer does not need sutures

97
Q

Perineal and vaginal tears

A

Damage form foetus - careful assistance - dont rush, lube, episiotomy

Minor tears of vulva are fine
Minor vaginal tears - leave to heal by secondary intention
Moderate tears resulting in prolapse of bladder or perivaginal fat can be sutured

Grading
1st - skin and mucosa of vagina, vestibule, vulva affected rarely requires surgery
2nd - full thickness tear of the vagina/vestibulle/vulva but not rectal wall or anus
Some disruption of fibromusclar tissues separating vagina and rectum may occur
3rd - Full thickness tear of the vagina/vestibule/vulva as well as rectal wall+/- anus. Complete disruption of recto-vestibular shelf resulting in a wide opening between the rectum and vagina. rectovaginal fistula may be present#

1st 2nd degree - not emergency - leave and reassess a few days post calving - most heal by secondary intention
2nd degree - may result in faecal contamination of vagina over time - increased endometritis risk - reduced fertility
- Can be managed by caslick procedure

3rd degree - delay surgery for 6-8 weeks - allow epithelialisation of defect
- swelling resolve and identify normal architecture
- Immediate surgery <4 hours post calving also possible but poorer outcomes
Advise to consider cull

98
Q

Haemorrhage post calving

A

Reduced risk through careful calving management
Range from mild venous ooze to several arterial bleeds
- Mild will self resolve
- Moderate uterine endometrial bleeding - oxytocin - stimulate myometral contraction
- Arterial bleeds - emergency - digital occlusion if end can be found
pack vagina as tight as possible - clean bedsheets and towels

Locate offending artery and clamp with haemostats for 3 days - stitch in to avoid losing
Pack tightly
Leave for 3 days
Guarded prognosis
exlap is option - risks

Possible sequelae
- Hypovolaemic shock - fluids and blood transfusion if >10 L lost
If bleeding into abdomen - sudden collapse post calving - no external bleeding, hypovolaemic, train to check mm colour

99
Q

What history questions when concerning male infertility?

A
  • Has he ever been used successfully?
    How long ago?
  • How old is he?
  • How many females has he been with and when?
  • Were they in good breeding condition?
  • Did females breed successfully with other males or A.I.?
  • Is he home-bred or bought/hired in?
    When?
  • Has he had febrile disease or treatment recently?
100
Q

Clinical exam for male infertility

A

Physical ailment may result in sub-fertility and infertility. Injury or disease may cause an infertility which appears as a subfertility if it affects the male part way through a breeding cycle.
* Whole animal clinical exam not just the reproductive system
* Observe from a distance – lameness, posture, demeanour
* TPR and BCS
* Teeth to check age/alignment
* Eyes check for cataracts
* Brisket – check for sores – will not mount with sore brisket
* Legs check range of movement and any indication of pain in legs as well as feet

101
Q

Ideal BCS for bulls and rams

A

BCS 2 or less - unsatisfactory - unlikely to peform adequately during intensive breeding
More than 4 - may suffer poor semen quality - fat deposition in scrotum - thermo-regulation problem

102
Q

Post legged

A

Increased risk of lameness due to hock, stifle, or hip pathology - young bulls with this should be avoided

103
Q

Puffy hocks

A

Swollen hocks due to excessive synovial fluid are not uncommon in intensively reared young bulls less than 2 years old.
* Distension of the hock joint may be caused by osteochondrosis which if mild may not be causing any lameness.
Progression to osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is possible in some bulls so bulls with swollen hocks and lameness are not suitable for breeding

104
Q

Feet in male soundness

A

22.1% had at least one physical abnormality
* Corkscrews
* Interdigital fibromas
* Feet and leg abnormalities that did not cause lameness were not
significantly associated with semen quality but may affect libido (hereditary!)
* Only 4 of 17 lame bulls had satisfactory semen

105
Q

Scrotal conditions

A
  • Scrotal shape: straight sided, normal (pendulous), wedge-shaped
  • Testis should move easily within the scrotum, if not then adhesions
    are indicators of previous infection and inflammation

Orchitis (firm/painful), NB. Brucella Ovis in rams is notifiable and causes orchitis as
primary symptom
* Dermatitis: Chorioptic mange common cause of scrotal dermatitis in rams

  • Scrotal circumference is a critical component of PBE of bulls as the SC
    measurement is highly correlated to paired testes weight, daily sperm
    production and semen quality.
  • The SC measurement at 1-2 yrs of age in bulls is moderately to highly
    heritable. Bulls with above average SC reach puberty earlier and this trait
    can be passed to female offspring.
  • In the UK BCVA Bull PBE certificate bulls can pass SC standards for
    certification if they achieve the relevant breed standards for age. For most
    breeds this will be similar or indeed greater than the SFT standards but for
    others, SC standards may be lower (eg British Blue, Limousin).
  • NB – rams should have scrotal circumference >33cm, or >30cm for a ram
    lamb.
    Over 30 for 12-15 months
    Over 34cm for >24 months
  • Hypoplasia – bilateral or unilateral. Congenital
    can be due to abnormality of blood supply
    (Belgian Blue bulls)
  • Hard and possibly small due to post-traumatic
    scarring or fibrosis/calcification with age
  • Soft due to tubular atrophy (including non-
    breeding season)
  • Absent – cryptorchid
  • Rotated – stallion. Not significant.
  • Enlarged – neoplasia, especially older dogs
  • ULTRASOUND can help diagnosis
106
Q

Conditions of the epididymis

A

Conditions of the epididymis
* Lumpy, esp. ascending infection (mainly ram-epididymitis), blockage (spermatocoele)
* Floppy, small, possibly displaced cauda
* Absence (segmental aplasia of mesonephric duct)
* Don’t just measure; palpate!

107
Q

Conditions of the prepuce

A
  • Penile rupture/haematoma
  • Preputial laceration/avulsion
  • Prolapse of prepuce
  • Urolithiasisis – crystals on preapical hair
  • Absent musculature in bulls/Too tight musculature can prevent intromission – hard to
    palpate
  • Phimosis (can’t get out) and paraphimosis (can’t get back)
  • Infectious balanitis
  • Trauma and foreign bodies
108
Q

Penile conditions

A
  • Corkscrew penis in bulls
  • Trauma – all species, but especially stallion
  • Rupture at the sigmoid flexure – ruminants
  • Papillomas and other tumours – sometimes self-cure; can often be ligated in bulls; Squamous cell carcinoma at urethral orifice in stallions, fibroblastic sarcoids on penile/preputial skin, Transmissible Venereal Granuloma in dogs.
  • Persistent frenulum
  • ‘Pizzle rot’ – Rams - Corynebacterium renale:grows in the alkaline environment caused by the high urinary urea content of rams on high protein diets (posthitis)
109
Q

Conditions of accessory sex glands

A

Examination
* Digital in Ram
* Rectal in bull/stallion
* Ultrasound
Conditions
* Seminal vesiculitis – typically yearling bulls;
can become refractory to treatment; diagnose
& treat early.
* Tulathromycin weekly for 6 weeks;
* Meloxicam by injection alternate days for
first 2 weeks.

110
Q

Infectious causes of male infertility - cattle

A

Cattle:
Viral
* IBR, BVD, EBL, Bluetongue
Bacterial
* Campylobacter, Brucella, TB, Lepto, Johne’s, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma
* Protozoal
* Trichomonas

Anything resulting in pyrexia

Any febrile condition or
treatment with cortisone is
likely to result in reduced
semen quality 4-6 weeks after
fever/treatment

111
Q

Infectious causes of male infertility - sheep

A

Sheep:
Viral
* Bluetongue and possible Schmallenberg.
Bacterial
* Brucella ovis (notifiable), possible Johne’s, Mycoplasma,
Ureaplasma

Anything resulting in pyrexia

Any febrile condition or
treatment with cortisone is
likely to result in reduced
semen quality 4-6 weeks after
fever/treatment

112
Q

How to semen collection

A

Artificial vagina - ruminants, stallions, boars
Digital manipulation - boars
Electroejaculation - most common in rams and bulls

113
Q

Rams vs bulls infertility

A

Rams are seasonal, bulls are not
* Rams have higher ‘workload’ ewe:ram ratio (up to 120 ewes per ram for
some breeds)
* Most infertility in rams can be detected from the physical exam, with bulls,
semen examination almost always required
* Rams - Semen collection by electro-ejaculator is painful in rams and must
only be used when absolutely necessary not as a routine test. Analgesia
is recommended and collection via artificial vagina is recommended to
provide a more representative sample without the welfare concerns

114
Q

AI biosecurity

A
  • Regular testing of bulls on stud (often monthly while producing)
  • All semen must be frozen and is subject to 28-day quarantine
    period before distribution
    BUT
  • For domestic use, bulls can be collected on farm and only bTB,
    Brucella and EBL tests are required by law (enzootic bovine leukosis)
115
Q

What to look for - gross examination of semen

A
  • Good microscope
  • Warm stage – essential to
    avoid cold shock to sperm
  • Warm slides
  • Good smears

Gross examination, Volume , Concentration, Abnormalities
* Volume = 0.5-2.5ml relate to ram age, size and breed, testicle size
* Colour = Concentration + Contamination
* white – yellow = normal.
* brownish = blood,
* greenish = Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
* clots or mucus = pus and inflammation.
* Density = 2500 – 5000 million sperm/ml (use of EEJ can result in a sample more dilute than would have been collected with AV)
* Motility = 70 – 95 %

Gross Motility
* Gross motility is assessed by placing a 5-10mm drop of the fresh semen sample on a clean warmed slide and examining under low power brightfield magnification.
* Gross motility is scored subjectively on a five point scale with the following
descriptors.
* Gross motility depends on three factors: concentration, % progressively motile sperm and speed of progression of sperm.
1 - no swirl - generalised oscillation of individual sperm only
2 - very slow distinct swirl
3 - slow distinct swirl
4 - moderate fast distinct swirl. Dark waves
5 - fast, distinct swirls with continuous dark waves

Progressive Motility
* After gross motility has been scored, a small drop (2-4mm) of semen is placed on a clean warm slide and covered with a warmed cover slip.
* Examination under x 200 - x400 magnification will allow an estimation of % progressive forward motility
* The standard required to pass the semen examination section of the BCVA PBE certificate is a progressive motility of > 60% .

As well as having a minimum of 60% progressive motility, the semen sample must have a minimum of 70% morphologically normal sperm to pass the semen examination section.
* Bulls with >20% nuclear (head) defects in a morphology counts should also be deemed unsatisfactory.
* The assessment of sperm morphology must be done in all cases even when motility is excellent as some sperm defects do not impair motility but have significant effect on fertilising capacity eg.nuclear vacuoles.

Sperm Morphology
* To make a smear a small 5-6 mm drop of eosin-nigrosin stain is placed at one end of
a warm, frosted-end slide and using a fine dropper or insulin syringe a small drop of
semen is mixed with the stain.
* After a short period the smear is made by pulling the drop of stain/semen along the
slide with the edge of another slide
* Morphology counts must be done under x1000 oil immersion magnification either
with stained slides and brightfield microscopy or using fresh, wet (formol saline killed) preparations and phase contrast microscopy

Proximal cytoplasic droplets - should be shed during epididymal transport
Detached heads - sperm accumulation - could be cleared after several ejaculates or may be accessory sex gland disease
Distal midpiece reflex/bent tail - comes from sperm maturation in epididymis
Coiled tails - midpiece abnormality
Distal cytoplasmic droplets - no reduction in fertility
Nuclear vacuoles - large vacuoles - significant effect on fertility

Foreign cells - Epithelial - inflammation of accessory sex gland or urethra
- WBC - infection or vesiculitis of accessory sex gland
- Bacteria - Infection of accessory sex glands or contamination
- Spheroids -spermatogenic epithelial cells form seminiferous tubules - degeneration or hypoplasia

116
Q

What is a satisfactory semen sample

A

Results of Semen Analysis
Satisfactory if:
* Progressive motility of >60%
* Normal sperm morphology count of >70%
* Absence of significant numbers of foreign cells such as leucocytes

117
Q

Pathogenesis of abnormal sperm production

A
  • Stress - pain, hunger, cold
  • Heat - obesity, scrotal abnormality, climate, fever
  • Season - photoperiod, nutrition, temperature
  • Hereditary - sperm defects, testis size
  • Puberty - resembles disturbed spermatogenesis
  • Toxicity - zearalenone (mycotoxin), bacterial toxins
  • Nutritional - protein, vitamin A-, Se-deficiency
118
Q

Hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis

A

Why? Remember hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis
Sperm production:
* Testosterone dependent
* Testosterone is reduced by: stress, cortisol, dexamethasone, exogenous oestrogen

119
Q

What is transition period cows

A

3 weeks pre to 3 weeks post calving

120
Q

What happens post partum

A

Post calving
Lactation
Uterine involution
Return to cyclicity
Regeneration of endometrium
Efficient control of uterine bacteria

121
Q

Post partum physiology

A

Uterine involution 3-6 weeks
Lochia - normal for 23 days - red brown- white discharge, lacks odour
Late gestation immunosuppression continues in early post partum
Around calving physical barriers to infection are compromised

122
Q

What are retained foetal membranes

A

The non expulsion of foetal membranes beyond 24 hours post calving
Normal is within 6 hours of calving

Placental physiology:
* Cotyledonary placenta
* Foetal cotelydon + maternal caruncle = placentome
* Collagen links interface together
* Breakdown of theses links = factor in placental separation
* Facilitated by relaxin secretion and decline of progesterone

Production losses
* 753kg milk/lactation
* Reproductive disorders
* delayed uterine involution and cyclicity
* longer time to 1st service
* increased service/conception
* lower pregnancy rates
* Increased culling risk
* Increased likelihood to develop secondary health problems
* metritis, endometritis, ketosis, displaced abomasum, mastitis…

123
Q

Risk factors for RFM

A

Induced parturition
Shortened gestation
Infectious disease - i.e. BVD
C section
Dystocia
Fetotomy
- Generalised uterine trauma
Twinning
Nutritional deficiency - vitamin E, selenium, NEB
Abortion
Immunosuppression - failure to switch off immuno protective mechanisms from pregnancy
Flunixin around calving

124
Q

Diagnosing RFM

Treatment

A

History and clinical signs
Vaginal exam

Manual removal - 5-7 days
Risks haemorrhage, tearing
No benefit on repro performance or milk yield
Systemic antibiotics - systemically ill - amoxicillin 3-5 days
- Could leave - usually expelled 2- 11 days
If requires any pressure to pull - leave them and tie them up to tail to stop standing on them
Use appropriate antibiotic milk withhold - if pyrexic, reduced milk yield, off food

125
Q

RFM in sheep

A

Placenta usually expelled within 6 hours
Retained if >18 hours
Relatively uncommon
Post c-section or dystocia
Selenium or vit A deficiency
Infectious abortion
Obesity of dam
Hypocalcaemia

126
Q

Metritis - two types

A

Clinical metritis
Puerperal metritis

127
Q

Clinical metritis vs puerperal metritis

A

Clinical metritis
- Not systemically ill
- Abnormally enlarged uterus
- Purulent uterine discharge
- Within 21 days post partum

Puerperal metritis
- Systemic signs of metritis - decreased milk yield, dull, inappetence, signs of toxaemia
- Fever >39.5
Abnormally enlarged uterus
Fetid watery red-brown discharge
Within 21 days post partum - usually <10 days

Metritis - infection of all layers of uterus

128
Q

Risk factors for metritis

A

Following abnormal stage 1 or 2 of labour
Severe dystocia, prolonged traction, damage to birth canal
Uterine inertia
Premature calving and abortion
Induced calving
Twins
RFM
Dairy>beef

In sheep
Often associated with - dead foetus/es, assisted delivery with poor hygiene, uterine prolapse

129
Q

Diagnosing metritis

A

Clinical signs of illness and straining
Foetid uterine discharge on clinical exam

Graded based on clinical signs in cow
1 - abnormally enlarged uterus, purulent discharge, without systemic ill health signs
2 - abnormally enlarged uterus, purulent dishcharge, with systemic ill - decreased milk yield, dull, pyrexic
3 - puerperal metritis or toxic, abnormal enlarged uterus, purulent uterine discharge signs of toxaemia - inappetence, cold extremities, depression and/or collapse

130
Q

Metritis treatment

A

Do not treat grade 1
Systemic - intrauterine alone is insufficient - amoxicillin 3-5 days
Supportive therapy - TLC, NSAIDs, fluids, calcium borogluconate
Uterine lavage - saline - peritonitis risk and toxaemia risk

Grade 3 - high risk of sepsis, peritonitis, UTI and reproductive adhesions, endocarditis, pneumonia, polyarthritis

131
Q

Endometritis - 2 types

A

Clinical endometritis
- Purulent uterine discharge - >50% pus >21 days after parturition
- OR mucopurulent uterine discharge ~50% pus 50% mucus >26 days after parturition - White

Subclinical endometritis
- >18% neutrophils in uterine cytology sample 21-33 days after parturition
OR - >10% neutrophils in uterine cytology sample collected 34-47 days after parturition
Uterine discharge not yet seem

132
Q

Risk factors for endometritis

A

Trauma
Hygiene - calving environemnt, post partum housing, personnel
Metabolism - NEB
Herd size - larger herds

133
Q

Endometritis diagnosis

A

No gold standard
Transrectal palpation +- US
Vaginal exam incl cervix - manual or metricheck
Cytology on cervical swab or lumen flush
Uterine biopsy
History
Vaginoscope

Rectal
- Delayed uterine involution
Doughy uterus
Palpation alone not sensitive or specific
Rectal US + vaginal exam

Snowglobe appearance on US - flocculant fluid

Common pathogens
E.coli
T. pyogenes
F. Necrophorum

134
Q

Endometritis treatment

A

Two problems
- Spontaneous self cure
- Imperfect diagnostics

Little merit to C&S
Intrauterine infusion of antibiotics - limited value
- Risk injury, peritonitis, septicaemia
Treat only > 3 weeks calved

PGF2a
Stimulate uterine defences - luteolysis - reduced progesterone, return to oestrus - increased tone + open cervix
Withdrawal 0 hours milk, 1 day meat

Intrauterine antibiotics
Cefapirin - metricure

 Clinical endometritis:
 Increases the interval to first insemination by 11
days
 Delays conception by 32 days
 Cows with clinical endometritis between 20 and 33
days post partum:
 1.7 times more likely to be culled for reproductive
failure

Reduced fertility:
* Reduced chance of conception
* Increased risk of cull

135
Q

Pyometra

A

Purulent or mucopurulent material within uterine lumen, causing uterine distension, in the presence of a closed cervix and functional corpus luteum

Uncommon in cattle and small ruminants

Diagnosis with transrectal US and palpation, history of anoestrus
Treat - PGF2a - luteolytic, expulsion of exudate and bacterial clearance, needs repeating in ~20% cases

136
Q

Intrauterine infusions

A

Must work

Against gram +ve and gram –ve, aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
In microaerophilic uterine environment
In an evenly distributed fashion across uterine lumen, with good penetration in endometrial layers
Without inhibiting uterine defence mechanisms
Without traumatising endometrium (e.g. not cause irritation)
Without reducing infertility by producing irreversible changes
In a cost-effective manner
With a known excretion pattern so appropriate withdrawal times can be applied

137
Q

Non surgical castration methods

A

Rings
Burdizzo - crushes spermatic cord - testicle should atrophy and scrotum remain

Rings only without anaesthetic in first 7 days - more than two months needs vet for calves
Lambs - 7 days - anaesthesia and vet required if over 3 months

138
Q

Surgical castration

A
  • Orchiectomy (orchidectomy or castration)
  • Vasectomy
  • Crushing of spermatic cord
  • Inducing ischaemic necrosis of scrotum
  • (Injection of irritants into testis) – typically hypertonic saline
139
Q

Castration of calf/bull

A

Surgical castration
* Local anaesthesia
Consider:
* Age and size
* Time of year
* Clean environment
* Antibiotics (experience)
* NSAIDs
* Exercise
* Safety vet/handler/animal (sedation may be helpful)

Surgical castration
* Open Technique by either:
* Lateral incisions into each side of scrotum or removal of distal scrotum
* Scalpel/Newberry knife
* Haemostasis either:
* Twisting and pulling
* Emascuators
* (rarely ligation)

Twisting method
Restrain animal in a safe position (crush or 1 or 2-person restraint for smaller calves) for you and the animal.
* Ask assistant to firmly lift the tail.
* Scrub and disinfect the injection site (particularly for bloodless castration)

Administer local block: inject 1-5ml (dependent on size) of local anaesthetic under the skin (SC, only with surgical castration) and 1-5 ml (dependent on size) in both spermatic cords (for both bloodless and surgical castration).
* You can inject local anaesthetic straight in the testicle (instead of the cords) but this is only preferred if the testicle is larger than a ‘small fist’ size. Wait minimum of 5 minutes
before proceeding.
* Provide NSAIDs

Pull the scrotum ventrally with one hand and…
* remove the bottom 3rd of the scrotum using a scalpel or
* place your hand on the scrotum above testicles and make an incision through the scrotal skin of each testicle, and through the vaginal tunic.

Separate the vaginal tunic from the testicle by tearing the ligament attaching the vaginal
tunic to the testicle
* Push the remains of the vaginal tunic up the cord, dorsally away from the testis. Pull the testis down slightly: it will “give” about 1-2cm.

Twist the cord repeatedly (either holding testicle or using artery forceps), occasionally stretching the cord slightly until it becomes thin and snaps
* Possibly use an emasculator on larger calves (>3-6 months). Remember: ‘nut to nut’!
Apply and hold on for a count of 60 seconds.

Remove tissue visible outside the scrotum and pull the scrotal edges down to help obscure any internal material.

140
Q

Castration in goats and pigs

A

Castration in other species
Goats
* Similar to sheep
* Clostridial disease vaccination even more important
Pigs
* Welfare of Farmed Animals Regulations 2003: Castration after day 7 of life can only be
performed by a veterinary surgeon
* Open surgical/twist and pull technique usual

141
Q

Vasectomy of ram

A

Ram, billy goat (buck, hob)
* Local anaesthesia (or GA) over scrotal neck and spermatic cords
* Incision at cranial aspect of each scrotum through skin, dartos, fascia (single cranial mid-scrotal incision also used by some veterinarians)
* Bluntly dissect cord
* Palpate vas as thick walled tube in non-vascular portion
* Incise tunic
* Pull out loop of vas
* Two ligatures and remove segment between
* Close skin
Ram vasectomy video – this short video details the process really nicely.

142
Q

Veterinary pre breeding exam

A

General physical exam
Examination of external genitalia
Semen sample on single day
Vet decision - can be used with confidence, not able to decide now, not suitable for breeding

Sample - a good ram can always produce a bad sample
Few sheep will be definite fail - be very sure before condemning
Could be not totally perfect but still fertile - cant affort to cull all of these but too risky to have in high pressure
Great tup - physically top form, perfect genitalia, good scrotal capacity, good semen quality

Must be the most pampered animals on the farm:
* Ideal BCS
* No lameness
* No disease
* No recent treatments with corticosteroids or some antibiotics (oxytet can reduce sperm count)
* Good teeth
* Good posture
* No brisket sores

143
Q

Using teaser (vasectomised) ram in sheep

A

No only technique - can use CIRDs and sponges
Approximately a 2 week advancement might be achieved using a teaser
* A tighter lambing period would be expected after using a teaser

1:100 ewes, repalce teaser after 14 days with fertile ram at 1:20 ewes - most ewes will be served at either 18 or 25 days after the teaser if first introduced

Farm animal (8 decks)

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