research meth rev Flashcards
(199 cards)
1
Q
primary data definition
A
data collected first hand by the researcher. It is collected specifically to match the aims of the investigation
2
Q
primary data strnegth
A
high validity because it is collected by the researcher with his/her aims in mind so it will be more useful to get valid conclusions.
3
Q
primary data limitation
A
consuming and more costly because the researcher has to find participants and carried out the research to collect data.
4
Q
secondary data definition
A
data that it is already published by other researchers so it is not specifically collected to match the researcher’s aims.
5
Q
secondary data strength
A
it is less time consuming so it is cheaper to collect because the data is already available to the researcher to be analysed.
useful when research cannot be carried out because of ethical issues. An example of this type of data is meta-analysis and content analysis where the data is published in reports, newspaper, books, academic journals etc
6
Q
secondary data limitation
A
may not be valid because it is not specifically collected having in mind the aims of the researcher.
7
Q
quanitiative data defintion
A
numerical data which means that it is objective. For example, scores from a test or rating in a questionnaire.
8
Q
quantataive data strnegth
A
objective data because it is numerical, it allows the researcher to make objective comparisons without the need to make biased interpretations of the data collected. This increases reliability.
9
Q
quantative data limitation
A
numerical data , it does not tell the researcher how and why the behaviour occurred. It only shows what behaviour occurred and how often. This decreases validity.
10
Q
qualitative data definition
A
data collected in a narrative form it provides in-depth information about the behaviour being investigated.
11
Q
qualitative data strength
A
As the participants can expand on their answers and give reasons for their behaviour, the researcher gains a better understanding of how and why the behaviour happened. This increases the validity of the findings.
12
Q
qualitative data limitation
A
As the researcher makes annotations of what is being said, the analysis of the data can be more difficult to compare and the interpretation can lead to bias conclusions. This decreases the reliability of the findings as it will be difficult to replicate to find similar findings.
13
Q
levels of measurement
A
interval data
ordinal data
nominal data
14
Q
what is interval data
A
quantitative data which is objective. For example, time taken to complete a puzzle, heart beat, blood pressure, temperature.
15
Q
strnetgh of interval data
A
easy to collect and categorise because it is numerical data. It is objective data as researchers do not need to interpret this data as the gaps between values are equally measured
16
Q
what is ordinal data
A
quantitative data and categorical data with a set of order or scale to it. For example, scores in a test or ratings in a questionnaire.
17
Q
ordinal data strength
A
easy to collect and categorise because it is numerical data. It is more informative than nominal data because it indicates relative values on a linear scale. Median can be calculated to make comparisons.
18
Q
ordinal data limitation
A
subjective because the gaps between values are not equally measured. For example, in a rating scale on happiness form 1-5 the gaps between each scale are not equal. The mean cannot be used to assess central tendency.
19
Q
what is nomical data
A
Collection of information that is divided into groups. For example, age, size, race, gender.
20
Q
strength of nominal data
A
easy to analyse and reliable.
21
Q
limitationa of nominal daat
A
subjective data because it does not have standardised intervals so numerical operations cannot be performed. The only central tendency that can be used with this data is the mode. Therefore, this data is not very useful.
22
Q
defintion of ppilot study
A
small-scale investigation
test out their methodology and make minor changes.
23
Q
formation of pilot study
A
A pilot study involves running the planned methodology but with a much smaller number of participants
The participants will often be a small opportunity sample such as classmates or colleaguues
24
Q
function of pilot study
A
modification of methodology
or whether a procedure is effective (e.g. does it take too long, are the instructions too complicated for participants to understand, or have any vital steps been left out).
25
advantages of pilot studied
A pilot study allows a researcher to decide whether or not it will be worthwhile to conduct a planned study on a larger scale.
A pilot study also provides the researchers with practice of running the study before the full data gathering begins, allowing all aspects of the study to go more smoothly
26
mean strength
Most representative of all
the measures of central
tendency because it is
comprised of the whole
data set.
27
mean limitation
most sensitive measure as outliers
can distort the mean. It can be
very misrepresentative of the data set if there are extreme scores present. Therefore, it can only be used with ordinal and interval
data.
28
median strength
not distorted by extreme
scores. Therefore, when there are extreme values in a data set, the median is used rather than the mean, so the data is more representative, increasing validity
29
strength of mode
Not distorted by extreme
scores. The only method
which can be used with
nominal data.
30
limitation of mean
Most sensitive measure as outliers
can distort the mean. It can be
very misrepresentative of the data set if there are extreme scores present. Therefore, it can only be used with ordinal and interval
data.
31
limitation of median
Does not reflect all scores in the data set. Therefore, it is not the most representative of the data set and it should only be used when there are outliers.
32
limitation of mode
there can be more than one mode so it is
not always a useful measure of central
tendency.
33
ethical issues definition
onsiderations that researchers need to consider before, during and after the research is conducted
welfare of the participants, the integrity of the research and the use of the data.
34
5 main guidlines from BPS
-Deception
Right to withdraw
Informed consent
Privacy and confidentiality
Protection from harm
35
deception
nformation is
deliberately withheld from
participants
prevents participants from giving fully informed consent
fully
debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research.
contact details of the
experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.
36
right to withdraw
researcher must
destroy any data or
information collected.
may feel unnecessary or undue stress and are therefore not protected from harm.
fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research.
37
infromed consent
their consent must be fully informed
rmed which means the aims of the research should be made clear before they agree to participate.
part in research that goes against their wishes or beliefs
38
confidentiality
personal information is protected by law under the Data Protection Act
data may be used by other parties against the participant’s wishes.
ake name, number or initials to protect their identity and assure anonymity
39
privscy
right of individuals to decide how information about them will be communicated to others.
which could be an invasion of privacy and the participant may later feel ashamed or embarrassed.
informed consent and the right to withdraw
xplain to participants the way(s) in which their information will be protected and kept confidential,
40
protection from harm
hysical or psychological harm, including stress. The risk of harm must be no greater than that which they are exposed to in everyday life.
may suffer from long‐term effects that could impact their lives in future.
may be referred to counselling.
41
Types of Research Methods
Experiments
Observations
Self-report
Correlation
Pilot studies
Case studies
Content analysis
42
Types of observations:
Naturalistic vs controlled
Covert vs overt
participant vs non-participant
43
Naturalistic:
conducted in the natural environment where the behaviour occurs.
44
Controlled:
conducted in a controlled environment. The researcher controls variables
45
Covert:
those observations in which the participants are unaware they are the focus of study because the observer is not visible to them. (no consent)
46
Overt:
The participants are aware the observer is observing them because the observer is visible. (participants consent).
47
Participant:
The observer becomes part of the group they are studying.
48
Non-participant:
the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records data in a more objective way
49
naturalistic strengths and limitation
high external validity. This means that the findings can be generalised because the behaviour is studied within the environment it would normally occur.
replication is difficult. This is because of the lack of control over the research situation. Therefore, uncontrolled extraneous variables will make the judge of any pattern of behaviour difficult make. This reduces reliability.
50
Controlled strength limitation
replication is high. This is because this type of observations are carried out in a controlled setting, so the extraneous variables are controlled.
ow external validity. This is because the observation is in a very controlled setting, so the behaviour does not occur in its natural environment. Therefore, the findings may be difficult to apply to real-life settings.
51
Covert strength limitation
they remove participants reactivity (demand characteristics) because they don’t know they are being observed. Therefore, The behaviour observed is more natural and this increases internal validity of the data gathered.
t has ethical issues. This is because even it the observation is in public, participants may not want to have their behaviour noted down.
52
Overt strength limitation
The participants know they are being observed so their behaviour may not be natural. This will decrease the validity of the findings.
They are more ethically acceptable as the participants know they are being observed.
53
Participants strength and limitations
n this type of observations, the researcher can experience the situation as the participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied. This increases the validity of the findings.
The researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity. This will reduce the validity of the findings.
54
Non-participants strengths and lim
This type of observations will allow the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from the participants so there is no danger for their findings to become blurred. This will increase validity.
However, the researcher may lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying. This will decrease validity.
55
How to assess inter-observer reliability
Two observers discuss the behavioural categories they want to observe and agree on what they are looking for. The categories must be specific, measurable, observable and clear.
Then they observe the behaviours at the same time but they tally separately.
They count their tallies and compare for similarity.
Then they run a correlation test to see if their tallies correlate. If they have 80% or above, then the observation seems to be reliable.
56
observation designs
Structured:
Unstructured:
57
structured
refers to how we collect the data. The researcher watches the behaviours and collects the data in a structured way: operationalised
58
Unstructured:
Where there is no checklist (pre-categories) so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible.
59
structured strengths
recording of data easier and more systematic. Easy to replicate which increases reliability. The data produced is more likely to be numerical (Quantitative). Therefore, analysing and comparing the behaviours observed is more straight forward. There is less observer bias and this increases validity
60
strucutred limitations
ose depth and understanding of why that behaviour is happening because they only record the times a particular behaviour occurs or what behaviours are happening. This decreases ecological validity.
61
unsrtucutred strenghts
is will give the researcher a better understanding of the participants behaviour. This will increase ecological validity of the findings.
62
unstrucutred limitations
qualitative data which may be more difficult to record and analyse
record those behaviours that catch their eye and this may not be the most important or useful. This will decrease validity as it be a risk of observer bias.
63
sampling methods in structured observations
Event sampling
Time sampling
64
Event sampling:
Involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour (event) occurs in a target individual or group. For example, the number of times a child cries when the mother leaves the room.
65
Time sampling:
behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds
66
adv and disadv time sampling
t is easier to focus on specific behaviour and tally as you only observe one behaviour in that time slot
some behaviours will be missed outside the intervals. Therefore, observations may not be representative.
67
adv and disadv of event sampling
Behaviours will not be missed as the researcher can tally the behaviours as they happen
if too many observations happen at once, it may be difficult to record everything.
68
directional hypothesis
higher/lower
69
non directional
will be a difference
70
null
no difference
71
sampling tecniques
Opportunity sampling
Volunteer sampling
Random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
72
oppurtunity
who is available and willing to take part in the study at the time
convenient
quicker and easier since it requires less effort on behalf of the researcher.
economical technique.
issues of bias
specific area or location
who are not representative of the target population.
nvestigator bias
may select particular individuals or avoid others according to their own subjective preferences. This means that it is less representative of the target population
73
volunteer
self‐selecting
responding to an advert.
requires minimal effort and input on behalf of the researcher
quicker and easier,
useful if you are looking for a particular kind of participant (left handed people)
bias
particular type of person that is likely to take part
are more curious or inquisitive by nature may volunteer more readily.
not representative of the target population
74
random
every member of the target
population has an equal chance of being selected.
such as pulling names from a hat, or using a computer software package which generates names/number randomly and without bias.
free from researcher bias.
his means that the sample is likely to be representative so can be generalised to the target population.
Ensuring that everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected is a difficult and time consuming task
who are picked may be unwilling to take part.
75
systematic
With systematic sampling, a predetermined system is used to select participants. For example, every fifth person is chosen and the same interval
is free from researcher bias
following a predetermined system, this reduces any potential influence that the investigator may have over obtaining the sample.
may not be truly unbiased. It might be that every Nth person
has a particular characteristic in common,fairly unlikely and unlucky
Therefore, the sample generated may not be representative
76
stratisfies
subgroups within a population are identified. Participants are obtained from each stratum (‘layer’ or category) in proportion to their occurrence within the population
largely free from researcher bias. In this technique, the sample is generated randomly once the subcategories/strata have been identified
likely to be representative
subgroups identified cannot possibly reflect all the individual differences that exist between those in the target population
77
extraneous
any variable that you are not investigating that can influence the dependent variable.
78
confounidng
type of extraneous variable.
ffect both the independent and dependent variables. They influence the dependent variable directly and either correlate with or causally affect the independent variable.
79
demand characteristics
A feature of a procedure that influences a participant to try to guess what a study is about and look for clues as to how to behave.
80
controlling deman characterisitcs
deception- distractor q and lying abt aim
single blind
81
investirgator effects
subtle cues or signals from an experimenter that affect the performance of participants in studies.
may be unconscious nonverbal cues, such as muscular tension or gestures. They may be vocal cues, such as tone of voice.
82
controls for investigator effects
double blind
randominsation
83
standardising
keep everything the same for each participant
procedure + instruction
84
counterbalancing
Important control when using repeated measures.
It reduces order effects as half participants do condition A then B and the other half do condition B then A.
85
order effects
Carrying out a task repeatedly leads to changes in performance
Boredom Effect: Deterioration of performance across conditions as PPs become tired or bored.
Practice Effect: Improvement across conditions through familiarity of the task or environment.
This is a problem with repeated measures design
Leave a long gap between conditions.
Use independent groups or matched pairs.
Counterbalanced design
86
matached oairs
There are no order effects as participants only take part in one condition.
Participant variables between conditions are reduced as participants have been matched
It is time consuming and expensive to match up participants.
Participants can never be matched exactly
87
reoeated measures
Any differences between conditions are likely to be due to changes in the IV and not due to participant variables.
Fewer participants need to be recruited, as they are used twice
Order effects may occur (e.g. practice, fatigue, boredom) as participants take part in all conditions.
May see more demand characteristics as participants are more likely to work the aim if they take part in both conditions.
88
independent groups
No order effects (practice, fatigue, boredom) as participants only take part in one condition.
Less chance of demand characteristics.
ny differences between conditions could be due to participant variables, e.g. one group could do better because they are more intelligent – control by randomly allocating to groups.
Less economical as twice as many participants are needed in comparison to repeated measures.
89
Natural Experiment
The researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing IV which would have changed even if the experimenter was not studying it. Participants may be tested in the field or a lab.
90
quasi
Have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people, e.g. age or gender. No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists.
91
explain why Spearman’s rho is an appropriate
statistical test for this data.
the co-variables (self-esteem and negative schema) have been measured using an ‘unsafe’ non-
standardised scale/the researcher constructed the scales herself
the co-variables cannot be measured objectively/mathematically/may not be ‘real things’
because units of measurement are not of equal size/of unknown size
92
Which statistical test should be used to calculate whether there is a significant difference in
reported smoking behaviour between the two surveys? Give three reasons for your
answe
* the researchers are investigating a difference between the number of smokers and non-smokers in
the two surveys (or an association between date and number of young people smoking/not smoking)
* the data is in the form of categories of smoker/non-smoker, ie nominal/categorical/non-parametric
* the young people sampled in 1987 and 2017 are different people/unrelated/independent groups so
the data are unrelated.
93
State one advantage of an independent groups design.
* removes order effects/effects of practise/fatigue etc
* participants are less likely to work out the aim and change their behaviour/less influenced by demand
characteristics.
94
Why would the researcher’s questionnaire produce primary data? Suggest one limitation
of primary data.
* the questionnaire will be used to collect data specifically for the purpose of the investigation
* the questionnaire data will be gathered first-hand from the participants themselves.
* requires time and effort on the part of the researcher (to develop resources, etc)
* may be costly compared to secondary data which can be easily accessed
95
To assess the questionnaire’s validity, the researcher gave it to 30 participants and
recorded the results. He then gave the same 30 participants an established questionnaire
measuring locus of control. The researcher found a weak positive correlation between the
two sets of results, suggesting that his questionnaire had low validity.
Explain how the validity of the researcher’s questionnaire could be improved.
* the researcher could compare the two questionnaires and note any differences
* the researcher could (identify and) remove/deselect any items on his questionnaire that are
problematic
* items might be problematic because they are leading, ambiguous, too complex, double-barrelled etc
* the researcher could incorporate a lie scale, so respondents are less aware that locus of control is
being tested.
96
Researchers investigated whether the experience of bullying is influenced by attachment
type. They interviewed teenagers about their early attachment experiences. Following the
interviews, the teenagers were categorised into two groups based on their attachment
type:
* Group 1 – secure attachment in childhood
* Group 2 – insecure attachment (insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant) in childhood.
During the interview, the teenagers were also asked about their experience of bullying.
They were categorised as either:
* having had experience of bullying, or
* having had no experience of bullying.
Which statistical test would be most suitable to analyse the data in this investigation?
With reference to this investigation, explain three reasons for your choice of test
Chi-Squared test.
* test of difference/association – analysing the difference in experience of bullying between teenagers
who had a secure or insecure attachment/the association between attachment type and experience of
bullying. Test of correlation would not be creditworthy
* independent/unrelated design – each teenager cannot appear in more than one category ie
secure/insecure; experience of bullying/no experience of bullying
* nominal/categorical – the data refers to the number of teenagers in each of the four categories
97
Which two of the following best describe Zimbardo’s prison study?
A – Controlled observation
E – Participant observation
98
What is content analysis?
mark for an outline of content analysis
- a method of quantifying qualitative content via coding/categorisation
- a form of (indirect) observation that examines artefacts/communications/form of media that
people produce
99
Explain what is meant by ‘event sampling’.
* observers/researchers decide on a specific event relevant to the investigation
* relevant event is recorded every time it happens
* in this investigation this may be every time a child in the playground is approached by/talks
to/plays with another.
100
Briefly discuss how observational research might be improved by conducting
observations in a controlled environment.
* controlled environment affords the opportunity for control of extraneous variables
* examples of extraneous variables that might be controlled and how/why they could affect
the outcome of a study if not controlled
* exclusion of extraneous variables allows for greater inference about cause and effect
* exclusion of extraneous variables means researcher can replicate the observation to
check for reliability of the effect.
101
The sleep questionnaire used by the researchers had not been checked to see whether or not it was a reliable measure of sleep quality.
Explain how this study could be modified by checking the sleep questionnaire for test-retest reliability.
* the same participants would complete the sleep questionnaire on more than one occasion
* each participants’ scores from the first occasion should be correlated with his/her results
from the later occasion to be shown on a scattergraph to describe the correlation, with scores from the first test plotted on one axis and the scores from the second test plotted on the other axis
* the strength of the correlation should then be assessed using either a Spearman’s rho test (or a Pearson’s r test)
* the degree of reliability is then determined by comparing the correlation with the statistical table to determine the extent of correlation – there should be a (strong) positive correlation between the two sets of scores.
102
9 Explain one reason why the mean is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for
this set of data
there are no extreme values (not skewed) so distortion will not be a problem with this data set
the mean takes into account/uses all the data so is more representative of the data than other
measures
data is time and is therefore interval data.
103
The psychologist was interested in finding out whether dream themes differed between
males and females, particularly in terms of social interaction. She decided to conduct a
pilot study. Twenty undergraduate students (8 male and 12 female) volunteered for the
study. For a six-week period the students were interviewed at 9 am each morning when
they arrived at university. Interviewers, who did not know the purpose of the study, carried
out and recorded the dream interviews.
1 3 What is meant by a pilot study? Explain one possible reason why the psychologist
decided to conduct a pilot study for this investigation.
to identify whether there needed to be any modifications in the design, eg whether the interview
questions were sufficiently relevant to dream content
to identify whether it would be feasible to conduct a study on the differences in dream themes across
gender
104
17 Explain how the reliability of the content analysis could be assessed.
Test-retest reliability - Award 1 mark for each of the following points:
content analysis repeated on a second occasion using the same interview data
compare the results of the two separate analysis (number of occurrences of each)
researchers could calculate the correlation between the two ratings
researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation (accept 0.7-0.9) between the test and the re-test.
Inter-rater reliability - Award 1 mark for each of the following points (up to 4 marks):
use a second person to work with the original researcher
they could read the interviews (separately) and devise a set of categories (and agree operational
definitions)
they could tally the occurrences of each of the categories of the interviews (separately)
they could compare their tally charts looking for agreement
researchers could calculate the correlation between the two ratings
researchers generally accept 0.8 correlation (accept 0.7-0.9) between the test and the re-test.
105
The psychologist decided to conduct an experiment to investigate the effect of watching
horror films before going to bed.
A volunteer sample of 50 university students consented to take part in the experiment.
The 50 students were randomly split into two groups. Group 1 watched a horror film
before going to bed each night for the first week then a romantic comedy before going to
bed each night for the second week. Group 2 watched the romantic comedy in the first
week and the horror film in the second week.
When the students woke up each morning, each student received a text message that
asked if they had had a nightmare during the night. They could respond ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
2 0 Write a brief consent form that would have been suitable for use in this experiment.
The consent form should:
* include some detail of what participants might expect to happen
* refer to ethical issues
* be in an appropriate format/style.
Outline of what the experiment entails:
an explanation of the general purpose of the research
they would need to watch an assigned horror film every night before going to bed for 7 nights and
would need to watch an assigned romantic comedy every night before going to bed for 7 nights
a daily requirement to truthfully respond to a text message asking whether they had experienced
a nightmare
the two-week duration of the experiment.
Ethical guidelines:
no pressure to consent
they can withdraw at any time
they can withdraw their data from the experiment
their data will be kept confidential and anonymous
they should feel free to ask the researcher any questions at any time
they will receive a full debrief at the end of the programme.
Format and style of consent form:
will require the participant’s agreement
could be written as a form that participants need to sign
could include space for the participant to sign the consent form
could include a space for the participant to write the date
could include a space for the participant to print their name.
106
13 Which of the following does reliability refer to?
The consistency of the data
107
Give one reason why it is important for scientific reports to include a referencing section?
* enables readers to track down the sources used
* to give credit to other researchers/acknowledge their ideas
* can avoid plagiarism.
108
Would a directional or non-directional hypothesis be more suitable for the researcher to
use? Explain your answer
dentifying that the hypothesis should be non-directional/‘two-tailed’.
Plus
1 mark for explanation that a non-directional (‘two-tailed’) hypothesis is suitable because there was no
previous evidence available for the researcher to predict the direction of the results. Accept alternative
wording.
109
Explain one strength of using a matched-pairs design rather than a repeated-measures
design
* in a matched pairs design participants only take part in a single condition so order effects are less of a
problem than in a repeated measures design, improving the validity of the results
* in a matched pairs design participants only take part in a single condition so demand characteristics
are less of a problem than in a repeated measures design as they are less likely to guess the aims of
the study.
110
Explain what it means for a test to have high concurrent validity.
* high concurrent validity is where there is close agreement between the data produced by the new test
compared to the established test. Close agreement is indicated if the correlation between the two sets
of data produced by the two tests exceeds +0.8.
111
The questionnaire had high concurrent validity.
Validity was still a concern because the researcher knew which participants were in each
experimental group.
Explain how this could have affected the validity of the study.
* knowing which experimental group each participant was in could lead to investigator
effects/researcher bias
* the researcher may have unconsciously/consciously influenced responses given by the participants
eg by smiling more/less or using a more/less pleasant tone/etc. to the participants assigned to one of
the groups whilst they were completing their happiness questionnaire
* this would have made them more/less likely to rate themselves as happier
* the increased happiness in the team sports group may therefore be due to investigator
effects/researcher bias as opposed to the change in the IV (effect of team sports over independent
exercise) invalidating the results of the study.
112
A psychology teacher read the researcher’s study on sport and happiness. She
considered whether setting group tasks could improve her students’ level of happiness.
She decided to conduct an independent groups experiment with 30 students taking
A-level Psychology using the same happiness questionnaire.
2 7 Suggest an appropriate statistical test the psychology teacher could use to analyse the
data. Justify your choice of test.
* identifying the Mann-Whitney as a suitable statistical test for the data obtained by the psychology
teacher
* stating that the chosen test is suitable for a test of difference
* stating that the chosen test is suitable for an unrelated/independent groups design
* stating that the chosen test is suitable for ordinal non-parametric/data.
113
A psychology teacher read the researcher’s study on sport and happiness. She
considered whether setting group tasks could improve her students’ level of happiness.
She decided to conduct an independent groups experiment with 30 students taking
Design an independent groups experiment that the psychology teacher could conduct.
In your answer you should provide details of:
* the aim of the experiment
* identification and manipulation of variables including details of the task
* controls to minimise the effects of extraneous variables
* data handling and analysis – use of descriptive statistics and/or data presentation.
The research will involve; Initially select a sample of participants, have them all complete a well-established happiness questionnaire. Then, divide them into two groups. This will be done using random allocation whereby each of the 30 students will be given a number 1 -30. These numbers will be placed in a hat and the researcher will draw one number for condition one and one for condition two until all participants have been allocated to the conditions. In condition one, the students will complete a task on their own for 45 minutes, the task will be to design a mind map of the psychodynamic approach. In condition two the students will work in groups of 5 (3 groups) and in their groups design a mind map of the psychodynamic approach. When the 45 minutes is over, students in both conditions will be asked to complete the happiness questionnaire once again, these results will then be compared with the original questionnaire to produce a change in happiness score. The IV in this experiment therefore is ‘group task or individual task’ and the DV will be ‘change in happiness score’. To minimise the effect of extraneous variables we will ensure that all students completing the mind map have previously studied the psychodynamic approach so that level of knowledge does not impact happiness score. In addition we will ensure that the same questions appear on both happiness test, however we will alter the order that they appear in.
For data analysis we will calculate the mean of happiness score of condition one and condition two to make some tentative conclusions about which condition leads to a larger change in happiness score. We will use the mean as we can assume the established happiness score to be interval data. For a visual display of the data we will plot it onto a bar chart with the categorical variables of group task and individual tasks plotted on the X axis and the mean of each condition on the Y axis. We will also calculate the standard deviation for the two conditions, this will allow us to comment on the spread of data in the two conditions and see if the impact of the IV (type of task) on the DV (score) was consistent or not.
114
In which section(s) of a scientific report would you expect to find reference to the
results/findings of the investigation?
The abstract, the discussion and the results sections only.
115
What is meant by the term meta-analysis?
* meta-analysis is the process where researchers collect and collate a wide range of previously
conducted research on a specific area
* collated research is reviewed together
* combined data/effect size is often statistically tested to provide an overall conclusion.
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ne criticism of the study is that the pupils were not matched on their typical recreational
screen time.
Explain how the psychologist could have matched pupils on their typical recreational
screen time across the experimental conditions.
* the psychologist could use a questionnaire/interview/ask parents to report/pupils to self-report
* examples of questions given/data obtained on average/daily recreational screen time use
* pupils with similar recreational screen time use would be paired
* one pupil from each pair would be (randomly) placed in Group A and the other in Group B.
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The feedback from one of the schools was that recreational screen time affected pupils’
social interactions. The psychologist decided to investigate this further by using an
observation of social interaction during playtime at the school.
2 5 Design the observation to investigate pupils’ social interaction in the playground.
In your answer you will be awarded credit for providing appropriate details of:
* type of observation, with justification
* choice of time sampling or event sampling, with justification
* dealing with one relevant ethical issue
* assessing reliability of the data through inter-observer reliability.
For this observation, I would conduct a covert, naturalistic, non-participant and structured observation. The observation would be covert, and I would pose as a gym member or member of staff so that my observations do not affect the behaviour of the gym users. This would ensure that the behaviour I am observing is natural and that observer bias is minimised. Furthermore, there are no ethical issues with conducting a covert observation in the main gym because the behaviour in question is taking place in a public setting. The observation would therefore take place in a naturalistic (gym) setting and naturalistic observations tend to have higher external validity as the behaviour is being examined in the environment where it naturally occurs. I would not interact or engage with the people I am observing (non-participant) as this will improve my objectivity because I am remaining distant from the participants. Most importantly, I would conduct a structured observation as I would create a list of behavioural categories that I would use to observe gym behaviour.
Operationalised Behavioural Categories
I would include a range of behavioural categories based on the different pieces of equipment in the gym, including Treadmill – Walking/Jogging/Running; Bike – Cycling; Lifting Weights – Arms (biceps/triceps); Lifting Weights – Chest; Lifting Weights – Shoulders; Lifting Weights – Legs, etc. I would also include a category for resting (either standing or seated). I will collect this data using a tally sheet, as shown below, and the number of people engaging in each activity will be recorded every five minutes.
For this observation, I would use time sampling where I would record the behaviour of everyone in the gym every five minutes. This would allow me to record (using a tally sheet) what different gym users are doing every five minutes and allow me to see whether people move onto different types of exercise at pre-determined intervals. Time sampling would be appropriate as it would allow us to gain a snapshot of activity at pre-determined time intervals. Event sampling would be difficult as you would be required to record every time a person moves from one piece of equipment to another, and this might be difficult to track.
Assessing Reliability
I will establish the reliability of the data by using two observers, to check for inter-observer reliability. I will operationalise the behavioural categories clearly and train the observers in how to use the tally sheet to record behaviour. Then I will get them both to observe the same gym for one hour and use a correlation test to determine how similar their scores were for each behaviour. If I found a correlation coefficient of .80 or more then I will know that there was a high level of reliability.
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Explain why the researcher decided to use the 5% level of significance rather than the
1% level in this study
* the 5% level of significance is the conventional level of probability employed by
psychologists/balances the risks of making a Type I and Type II error
* the researcher is investigating the relationship between numbers of hours slept and how well rested
participants feel, this is not a sensitive topic nor one which may affect individual’s health (as in clinical
trials)
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Explain what is meant by a Type II error in the context of this study.
* when the researcher accepts there is no correlation between the number of hours slept and how well
rested they felt (null hypothesis) even though the alternative hypothesis is correct
* when the researcher believes the relationship between the number of hours slept and how well rested
they felt is not significant when it is (false negative).
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Explain why the researcher used a controlled observation and a standardised script in this
study.
when they arrived, providing a high level of control
* without using a standardised script, the researcher’s welcome may vary causing unintentional bias, eg
may use more child-friendly vocabulary which may make the child less anxious and thus more
sociable, etc
* using a controlled observation helps to reduce extraneous variables which may have an impact on the
social behaviour of the children, affecting the validity of the study.
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Identify one limitation of controlled observations.
* they lack ecological validity/cannot be applied to everyday life/less natural behaviour
* effects of demand characteristics are more likely (Hawthorne effect
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Explain one strength and one limitation of using time sampling for this observation.
* time sampling may be easier to manage as there are likely to be many social behaviours occurring
throughout the set observation time
* time sampling is most appropriate for recording ongoing behaviours that are likely to occur in a social
setting, eg conversations or playing together.
Possible limitation:
* time sampling may not be representative of social behaviours as some social behaviours that
3-year-old children may display may be missed, eg a child may be playing independently when the
observer is noting the behaviour, but then sharing their toys or talking to another child outside of the
set observation time frame.
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Explain how the reliability of the controlled observation could be assessed through
inter-observer reliability.
* two observers would use same behavioural categories/discuss and agree on an interpretation of each
of the social behaviours in the category system
* two observers would make independent observations/tallies (of the same child at the same time/the 5-
minute sessions are filmed and each observer watches and records the data for each film)
* the two observers’ tally charts would be compared to check for agreement/calculate the correlation
between the recordings of the two observers to determine the level of inter-observer reliability
* researchers generally accept +0.8 correlation as a reasonable degree of reliability.
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Explain one reason why collecting quantitative data could reduce the validity of this study.
* social behaviours are complex and contextual, quantifying them will lose detail
* loss of detail may mean important contextual information is missing, eg sarcastic smile as opposed to
a friendly smile
* by quantifying the social behaviours, the relative importance of the social behaviour or combination of
behaviours may be lost reducing validit
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Describe features of the abstract section in a scientific report.
* first section of a report (accept alternative wording)
* brief/summary/100-300 words (accept alternative wording)
* contains (a summary of) the aims, methods, results, and conclusions (accept alternative wording).
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A new TV programme has been developed to increase positive social behaviours in
pre-school children.
There is a proposal to carry out an experiment to compare the effects of the new TV
programme and an existing TV programme, on positive social behaviours in pre-school
children.
A sample of 500 pre-school children and their parents is available for the experiment. The
parents have given consent for their children to take part in this experiment.
The experiment will take place over an 8-week period. Data on the children’s social
behaviours will be gathered from the parents using a self-report method.
1 9 Design the experiment to investigate whether watching the new TV programme leads to an
increase in positive social behaviours in the children, compared with watching the existing
TV programme.
In your answer you will gain credit for providing appropriate details of the following:
* the type of experimental design, with justification
* a self-report method of data collection, with justification
* how to control one extraneous variable, with justification as to why this would need to be
controlled.
For this experiment, an independent groups design would be appropriate, where half of the 500 pre-school children would watch the new TV programme, while the other half would watch the existing TV programme. This design is justified as it allows for a clear comparison between the two groups, minimizing the potential for contamination or carryover effects that might occur in a repeated measures design where all children would watch both programs. The independent groups design ensures that each child experiences only one type of TV programme, providing a straightforward comparison of the effects.
To gather data on the children's social behaviours, a structured questionnaire would be an appropriate self-report method. Parents would be asked to report on observable behaviors related to positive social interactions, providing quantitative data. The questionnaire would include critical questions assessing specific social behaviors such as sharing, cooperation, and communication. This method is justified as it allows for efficient data collection from a large sample, ensuring practicality and a high response rate. Structured questionnaires also facilitate standardized data collection, reducing variability in responses and minimizing the potential for subjective interpretation.
To control for the extraneous variable of distractions during the TV show, all children would watch the program in a controlled environment with minimal distractions. This is essential because distractions could impact the children's attention and engagement with the TV programme, influencing the outcomes related to positive social behaviors. By ensuring a standardised environment for both groups, the study aims to isolate the impact of the TV programme itself on social behaviors. Failure to control this variable could introduce variability in the conditions, compromising the internal validity of the study and potentially confounding the results with external factors.
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what is standard deviation
Definition: SD measures how far apart each value on the data set is from the mean as every score is involved in the calculation.
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what Is a low sd score
ndicates that the data in the set are similar. A low standard deviation suggests that, in the most part, the mean is a good representation of the whole data set.
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what is a high sd score
indicates that the data/some of the data in the set are very different to each other. A high standard deviation suggests that, in the most part, the mean is not a good representation of the whole data set.
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what is the strengths of range
asy to calculate mathematically
without use of a calculator and it is less affected by outliers. This is a strength as this speeds up data analysis allowing psychologists and researchers to draw conclusions about their research at a faster pace. Therefore, it should be used when there are outliers in the data set.
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range limitation
It is less sensitive to outliers because it does not take all the values in the data set. This is a limitation because it is not representative of the data set.
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strength of standard deviation
Is a precise measurement of
dispersion because it shows how each value in the data set is far apart from the mean as it is calculated using all the values in the data set. Therefore, it should be used when there are no outliers in the data set.
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limitation of standard deviation
it is more sensitive to outliers compared to the range as it takes all the values in the data set and how far each data point is from the mean. This is a limitation because the SD can be distorted by a single extreme value. This decreases the validity of the interpretation of the data set.
134
what is content analysis
It is a research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other median
135
what is thematic analysis
An inductive and qualitative approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been code
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steps of content analysis
Obtain the observations research: conversation, report form police or doctor, media texts, films, TV programmes.
Coding: annotate recurring phrases or ideas relevant for your research. The researcher will create behavioural categories with this information
They will tally the occurrence of each ‘behaviour’ accordingly. For example, how many occurrences of sadness were found.
The qualitative data has now undergone analysis to produce quantitative data. Now they can analysis these quantitative data by using statistical testing, descriptive statistics and producing graphs or tables.
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steps of thematic analysis
A theme in thematic analysis refers to an idea, explicit or implicit that is recurrent. These are more descriptive than the coding units in content analysis.
For example, the mentally ill may be represented in newspapers as a “threat to the wellbeing of our children”.
The report is done by using quotes.
The data collected in Thematic analysis is qualitative data.
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limitation of content and thematic analysis
There is the possibility that content analysis can produce findings that are very subjective.
For example, the researcher may interpret some things said in an interview in a completely different manner from how they were intended, due to their own preconceptions, judgements or biases.
Cultural differences may contribute to inconsistent interpretation of behaviour coding since language may be translated and therefore interpreted differently by someone of a different nationality.
As a result, the validity of findings from a content analysis can be questioned since it may not have been measuring what it intended to with accuracy.
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how do we assess the reliability of content analysis
Two researchers will go through the report, books, newspapers separately
Then they will code recurrent ideas to create categories.
Then they will tally them and compare their tallies.
If the correlation of the tallies is higher than 80% then the findings are reliable.
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strengths of content and thematic analysis
A strength of both content analysis and thematic analysis is high ecological validity.
Much of the analysis that takes place within these research methods are basing their conclusions on observations of real-life behaviour and written and visual communications.
For example, analysis can take place on books people have read or programmes that people have watched on television.
Therefore, the findings from this type of research tend to be a true representation of how behaviour occurs in real situations.
Another of both is the high reliability of the findings.
Since this type of analysis is based on written and visual communications taken from real-life situations such as books, TV programmes, police reports etc., the analysis of these qualitative data remains available through time.
This means that replication of the content or thematic analysis can be conducted. If results were found to be consistent on re-analysis then they would be said to be reliable.
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what is a corrrelational method
type of non-experimental research method in which a researcher measures 2 variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable.
In correlation there is no manipulation of IV or control of variables. In correlation the researcher studies the relationship between one or more quantitative IV and one or more quantitative DV.
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how we calculate and interpret correlation
The correlation coefficient (ρ) is a measure that determines the degree to which the movement of two different variables is associated. There are several statistical tests to measure correlation: Spearman’s Rho, Pearson and Chi Square test.
The possible range of values for the correlation coefficient is -1.0 to +1.0
Zero indicates no correlation
+1 indicates strong positive correlation
-1 indicates strong negative correlation
+ 0.5 indicates moderate positive correlation
-0.5 indicates moderate negative correlation
-30 indicates weak negative correlation
+30 indicates weak positive correlation
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how are correlations represented
-through scatter graphs
143
limitations of correlation
Correlation is a quick and economical way to carry out. There is no need for a controlled environment and manipulation of variables. It can also be carried out using secondary data from reliable sources such as government statistics.
144
strengths if correlations
Correlation is a quick and economical way to carry out. There is no need for a controlled environment and manipulation of variables. It can also be carried out using secondary data from reliable sources such as government statistics.
Correlations are a useful preliminary tool for research. By assessing the strength and direction of a relationship, further research can be carried out to investigate if there is causation.
145
implications of research into the role of the father of the economy
Research into the role of the father in child development has important implications for the economy. As more evidence highlights the positive impact of involved fathers on children's emotional and social development, it suggests that encouraging shared parental responsibilities could lead to a more productive and well-adjusted workforce in the future.
Policies that support paternal leave and flexible working arrangements may also help reduce gender inequality in the workplace, leading to greater workforce participation from both parents. In turn, this can promote a more balanced and effective economy by improving workforce retention and overall family well being
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implications of research into sz for the economy
Research into schizophrenia (SZ) has significant implications for the economy. Understanding the causes, symptoms, and treatments of SZ can help reduce the economic burden associated with the disorder. Effective early intervention and treatment can improve the quality of life for individuals with SZ, enabling them to work and contribute to society, reducing reliance on social support systems.
Additionally, investing in mental health services can lead to long-term savings by preventing hospitalisations and reducing the costs of crisis management. Overall, improved care for individuals with SZ can lead to a healthier workforce and a more productive economy.
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implications of research into memory for the economy
Research into memory has important implications for the economy, particularly in areas such as education, workforce productivity, and healthcare. Understanding how memory works and how it can be enhanced or impaired can help in designing more effective learning strategies, leading to a better-educated workforce. Additionally, improving memory in older adults through cognitive training or interventions could help reduce the economic burden of age-related cognitive decline, enabling people to remain productive and independent for longer. Furthermore, insights into memory can guide policies and practices in industries like healthcare, where accurate memory is critical in reducing errors and improving efficiency.
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implications of research into therapies to stop smoking for the economy
Research into therapies to stop smoking has significant implications for the economy by reducing the financial burden associated with smoking-related illnesses. Effective smoking cessation therapies can lower healthcare costs by decreasing the prevalence of diseases such as lung cancer, heart disease, and respiratory disorders, which are expensive to treat.
Moreover, by helping individuals quit smoking, these therapies can improve workforce productivity through fewer sick days and improved overall health. Additionally, reducing smoking rates can lead to lower insurance premiums for both individuals and companies. Overall, investing in smoking cessation research can contribute to a healthier, more productive society and a more cost-effective healthcare system.
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what is peer review
Peer review is an independent assessment process that takes place before a research study is published and is undertaken by other experts in the same field of psychology. All psychologists must be prepared for their work to be scrutinised in this way which is conducted anonymously
150
what is the process of peer review
To provide recommendations about whether the research should be published in the public domain or not, or whether it needs revision.
To check the validity of the research to ensure it is of a high quality.
To assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology.
To judge the significance of the research in the wider context of human behaviour.
To assess the work for originality and ensure that other relevant research is sufficiently detailed.
To inform allocation of future research funding to worthy investigative processes.
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two types of self reports
interviews
questionnaires
152
what is aa questionnaire
a type of self-report which involves participants answering a range of questions designed to collect their thoughts, feelings, attitudes, attributes and opinions
to understand how people feel about issues
consist of either closed questions or open questions or a combination
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strengths of questionnaires
Questionnaires are a quick, easy and convenient method of gathering data
Large samples can be reached via the use of electronic survey tools
Large samples produce reliable results as any anomalous results are averaged by the overall trend of the data
Questionnaires use standardised questions which means that they can be replicated to check for reliability
The test-retest method can check for external reliability
The split-half method can check for internal reliability
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limitations of questionnaires
There is a tendency for people to under-report negative and over-report positive aspects of themselves when completing a questionnaire
This means that questionnaires can lead to participants succumbing to social desirability bias
Any form of bias in research impairs the validity of the findings
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closed questions generate what type of data
quantitive
e.g.
the number of ‘yes’ responses across the questionnaire
the number of times a participant ticked b)
the total score is calculated from the scaled questions e.g. 2 + 4 + 7
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open questions generate what type of data
the transcript of an interview
the themes which have emerged during a conversation or interview
the thoughts, ideas and feelings of the participant which cannot be ‘boiled down’ into neat numerical data and which relate only to that individual
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strengths of closed question
Closed questions generate quantitative data which is easy to analyse and spot patterns/trends in
The data can be presented graphically and analysed statistically
Thus, reliability can be high, particularly if the questionnaire is distributed to a large sample
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strengths of open questions
sk participants to expand on the answers they give, allowing both researcher and participant to clarify, explain and qualify their comments
This means that open questions have good explanatory power and external validity
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limitations of closed questions
the quantitative data obtained from closed questions sacrifices the level of detail and insight required to understand reasons and explanations
This means that closed questions lack validity
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limitations of open questions
Open questions are difficult to analyse due to their subjective nature
The researcher must interpret meaning and intention from them which could give rise to a lack of consistency and objectivity
This means that open questions lack reliability
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designing questionnaires the researcher must consider:
Aim
Length
Question construction
Fixed-choice questions
Likert scale questions
Rating scale questions
lie scale
open/closed questions
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aim for questionnaires
What is the questionnaire’s purpose, and how will it aid the research process?
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length of questionnaires
The questionnaire cannot be too short as this would result in a lack of data
The questionnaire cannot be too long as participants will become bored and may answer without care or full attention
164
question constructions
Questions should be clear, concise and unambiguous
Will the questionnaire use closed questions, open questions or a combination of both?
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what's a fixed choice question
ask the participant to choose from one of the options provided e.g.
Do you eat junk food at least once a week?
Yes or No
Why do you eat junk food?
a) I like the taste
b) It's affordable
c) It's quick and easy
d) All of the above
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likert scale is...
allow the participant to express the degree of their agreement with a statement e.g.
I eat junk food because my friends also eat junk food
Strongly agree
Agree
Slightly agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
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what is a rating scale
questions are similar to Likert scale questions in which participants select a value that corresponds to how strongly they feel about an idea/topic e.g.
How healthy do you think junk food is?
Completely unhealthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very healthy
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lie scale
Some questionnaires include a lie scale
Lie scales consist of statements that test the truth of the participant's responses
Lie scales are not designed to catch people out
They are useful to spot where participants have fallen into the temptation of mindlessly ticking all the nth or random boxes
One way to incorporate a lie scale is to include similar questions that are re-worded versions of the original question
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features of a good question
clear
unambiguous
on-topic
neutral and emotion-free
Questions which include overly technical or jargonistic terms may lead to misunderstanding
Double-barrelled questions are to be avoided as the participant is left not knowing which part of the question to answer
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designing interviews
Interviews require face-to-face communication which is usually conducted by one researcher and one participant
The interview schedule will determine
the nature and number of questions to be asked
the type of interview to use
who is best to run the interview
an environment in which the participant feels safe and is happy to disclose what may be sensitive information depending on the topic being explored
A neutral room in a quiet location with comfortable seating is ideal
The researcher must establish rapport with the participant before the interview begins so that the participant feels relaxed and that they can trust the researcher
This might take the form of informal chatting about the weather, holiday plans, their journey to the location etc.
The participant will be given a consent form, told that they have the right to withdraw at any point and assured of confidentiality and anonymity
reliable way of recording the participant's responses e.g.
written notes
use of a recording device such as a dictaphone or mobile phone
he researcher must ensure that they do not pass judgment on the participant or make them feel at all uncomfortable or compromised throughout the interview
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strength of meta analysis
There is less chance of bias confounding the results due to the use of secondary data
The researchers have not carried out the research themselves so they cannot have influenced the outcome in any way
This increases the reliability of the findings as a large number of studies analysed statistically increases the robustness of data (known as statistical power)
It is possible to generalise the findings to a wider population due to the number of studies included in the meta-analysis
This increases the external validity of the findings
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weakness of meta analysis
The use of secondary data means that the researchers cannot be 100% confident as to the degree of precision exercised by the original researchers
They have no control over how key variables are operationalised
This limits the reliability of the findings to some extent
It may be difficult for the researcher to access relevant studies
This means that the process can be time-consuming and rather onerous
This could lead to the researcher abandoning the research which is a limitation as valuable insight into a topic could then be lost
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what is content analysis
used to analyse qualitative data by turning it into quantitative data through the use of coding does not collect data directly, rather it uses pre-recorded examples of spoken interactions summarise the main ideas presented in the spoken or written material via structured methods to conclude the data
174
what is coding
method of analysis used to convert qualitative, visual or auditory data into quantitative numerical data by assigning each behaviour to a 'code' that can be analysed numerically
174
coding process
The researcher formulates their research question
select a sample of preexisting qualitative data sources
decides on the coding of the categories/coding units through out the material
works through the data using a tally
The researcher will then need to test for reliability via: test retest or integrator reliability
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what is test retest
Run the content analysis again on the same sample (the material used first time round) and compare the results
176
what is thematic analysis
used to analyse qualitative data
It allows researchers to identify, analyse and report common/key themes from a set of data
A theme is any feature of the data which recurs The researcher familiarises themselves with the data by reading it over and over again
Themes within the data emerge i.e. patterns, repeated or common ideas or concepts reviews these themes and patterns to see if they can explain behaviour and answer the research question then categorises and defines each theme e.g.
people in their 20s often refer to 'lack of savings', 'high rents' and 'lack of parental support' as obstacles to house-buying
The researcher writes up the analysis into their formal report
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strengths of thematic analysis
Thematic analysis is solely qualitative
It can provide insight into why, how and what people feel, think, experience
This means that it is high in ecological validity
The researcher can quote directly from the original source material
This enables them to add context to their report, bringing real, subjective human experience to the forefront of their findings
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limitation of thematic analysis
Thematic analysis is extremely time-consuming
The text must be studied, analysed and reviewed repeatedly in order to identify and categorise the themes
This means that some researchers may decide not to use it as an analytical tool which in turn limits its usefulness
The researcher may be prone to confirmation bias
Researchers may overlook themes which do not align with their preconceived ideas and focus only on those which support them
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type 1 error
occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted
The researcher claims that the results are significant when in fact they are not (also known as a ‘false positive’)
more likely to happen when the researcher uses a probability value that is too high e.g.
0.1 rather than 0.05
0.06 rather than 0.05
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type 2 error
r is more likely to happen when the researcher uses a probability value that is too low e.g.
0.01 instead of 0.05
0.03 instead of 0.05
Using a 0.05 significance level guards against making either a Type I or a Type II Error
181
Theory construction
A theory is a set of principles that intend to explain certain behaviours or events A theory can be constructed using empirical evidence gathered via research to support its central assumptions and principles as a theory cannot exist based on beliefs alone
181
what are the features of science
theory construction
hypothesis testing
empirscm
paradigms and paradigm shifts
replicability
objectivity
falsifiability
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Hypothesis testing
A hypothesis is a prediction of what the researcher expects to find after conducting their research
A hypothesis must be objective and measurable
The study is then conducted following the hypothesis, i.e. what is the central focus of the study and how will the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) be operationalised in the study?
When the study's findings have been analysed, a clear decision can be made as to whether the null hypothesis can be accepted or rejected
If the null hypothesis can be rejected then the theory is strengthened as it means that the IV has affected the DV (a significant result)
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empirical method
The empirical method involves using scientific methods to collect data (quantitative data only) in ways which are controlled by the researcher and which are replicable
st hypotheses using methods gained from direct observation in a systematic way
184
what is a paradigm
A paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and methods within a particular discipline which distinguishes science from non‐science (Kuhn 1962)
Psychology is thus viewed as a pre‐science, (physics, biology and chemistry are science) as it has too much disparity between its various approaches (e.g. cognitive versus biological) e.g.
the cognitive approach argues that depression is the result of faulty thought processes
the biological approach argues that depression is the result of a neurochemical imbalance
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what is a paradigm shift
A paradigm shift occurs when a field of study moves forward through a scientific revolution, generally when one or more scientists challenge an existing, accepted paradigm, which may, initially be ridiculed by the scientific community
As time passes these new, revolutionary ideas gain traction as more scientists begin to challenge the old theory, adding more research to contradict the existing assumptions
A crucial point occurs at which the old paradigm is discarded for the new paradigm
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example of paradigm and shifts
Psychoanalytic theory (popularised by Freud) prevailed from the late nineteenth century and was at the forefront of psychological thinking until behaviourism (around 1913) proposed the idea that all behaviour is learned from the environment
The cognitive approach took over in the 1950s with its emphasis on mental processes and machine reductionism
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falsifiability
Falsifiability is the ability of a theory to be found to be wrong (i.e. false)
The emphasis is placed on being able to test the theory
means that scientific methods can be used to test it
This is why significance testing is based on either rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis as it is the hypothesis that states that there is no effect of the IV on the DV
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sections of a scientific report
abstract
introduction
method
findings
discussion
referencing
189
abstract
The abstract is a summary of the entire research process which should be 150 - 200 words long (according to the APA guidelines)
Abstracts include a brief overview of the study's aim, hypotheses, method, results and conclusion
Reading an abstract can help to inform the reader as to whether or not the report is going to be useful for their purposes
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Introduction
The introduction to the report details what the study is to cover e.g.
the theory or theories which are relevant to the study
associated research that is relevant to the study (e.g. if the study investigates short-term memory the introduction will include references to other studies on the same topic)
The introduction concludes by stating what the aim of the study is, followed by the experimental hypothesis and the null hypothesis
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method
The sample is described and justified e.g.
the total number of participants in the sample (and how many of those were female; how many were male)
the age of the participants
the nationality(s) of the participants
other relevant demographic details e.g. profession, ethnicity, skills etc.
The sampling method is described e.g.
an opportunity sample of university students
a random sample of cardiac patients who attend out-patients clinics in one large city
The design is described and justified e.g.
repeated measures if the study is a lab experiment
covert naturalistic participant observation if the study is an observation
The materials are described and their use explained e.g.
video of a staged car crash lasting 7 seconds to accompany a set of questions relevant to eyewitness testimony
The procedure is described which should include:
the standardised instructions used to explain the task to participants
how the participants completed the task
how the participants' performance on the task was recorded/measured
briefing instructions
debriefing details
information as to how ethical guidelines were followed and implemented e.g.
the participants gave informed consent via a consent form
the consent form included the participants' right to withdraw
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findings
The findings summarise the results of the study
These are measured as:
the performance of the participants on the task set up by the researcher (experiments)
their behaviour in a given context (observations)
their responses to questions (self-report methods)
If the research has collected quantitative data this is analysed statistically via (usually) both descriptive and inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics include the use of either mean, median or mode (measures of central tendency) and either range or standard deviation (measures of dispersion)
Inferential statistics are used to test the level of significance, known as probability testing (the use of a parametric or non-parametric test) which results in the null hypothesis being accepted or rejected, depending on the outcome of the test
If the research has collected qualitative data this is analysed using appropriate methods such as thematic analysis or content analysis
The written transcript of the research is categorised into coding units (content analysis) or themes (thematic analysis)
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discussion
The discussion starts with a consideration of the findings which are analysed in light of the aim of the research and the theory being investigated
The discussion presents an evaluation of the research itself, identifying strengths and limitations of each aspect of it e.g.
a strength of the study might be that it used a double-blind procedure, ensuring validity
a limitation of the sample might be that it was gender-biased, being predominantly female
The discussion concludes by considering the research in the light of wider contexts, the implications of the research and what its potential applications are e.g.
in health settings
in education
as a useful contribution to the understanding of the theory
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referencing
To avoid accusations of plagiarism the researcher must acknowledge all sources used throughout the research process
Referencing must adhere to a particular convention and be consistent throughout the report, with a different format used depending on whether a journal article or book is referenced
To reference a journal article the following format is usual:
Peterson, L., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of experimental psychology, 58(3), 193.
To reference a book the following format is usual:
Goldacre, B. (2013). Bad Pharma: How medicine is broken and how we can fix it. London: Fourth Estate
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Schaffer and Emerson on economic imps
Found that babies form attachments with adults who are sensitive to their needs
Babies form multiple attachments from 10 months onwards
The father is a key attachment figure
The economic implications are that
both parents can take it in turns to look after the baby initially (saving money on nursery fees)
the mother can return to work knowing that the child is happy to attach to others (e.g. the father, nursery workers etc.)
both parents are then contributing to the workplace and the family unit financially
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