Research Methodology Flashcards
(136 cards)
1
Q
What is research?
A
The systemic investigation into a study of materials & sources in order to establish facts & reach new conclusions
2
Q
What comes under experimental research?
A
- hypothesis
- variables
- deductive approach
- objective
- quantitative data
- cause & effect
- statistical analysis
3
Q
What comes under non-experimental research?
A
- open research question
- no defined variables
- inductive approach
- subjective
- qualitative data
- identify meanings/experiences
- interpretive analysis
4
Q
Define experimental research
A
Determining the cause of something by isolating hypothesised causes & comparing the controlled results.
5
Q
What are the 2 paradigms?
A
- ontology - what is reality
- epistemology - understanding of knowledge
6
Q
What is equality of opportunity?
A
Everyone gets equal regardless of circumstances
7
Q
What is equality of outcome?
A
Try to get final outcome at same level
8
Q
What are the 4 philosophical worldviews?
A
- positivist
- constructivist
- pragmatic
- transformative
9
Q
What do positivists believe?
A
- one reality
- causes determine effects of outcomes
- reductionist
- theory verification
10
Q
What do constructivists believe?
A
- theory generation
- no single reality- how individuals interpret experiences
- inductive
11
Q
What do pragmatic believe?
A
- caused by actions, consequences and situations;
- mixed methods
12
Q
What is the transformative viewpoint?
A
- includes critical theorists & participatory action researchers
- change orientated -research focused with policy & political change to confront social oppression
13
Q
Order within triangle of evidence (starting from top)
A
Systemic review (meta analysis) Randomised controlled trials Controlled clinical study Retrospective / prospective cohort Case report Expert opinion
14
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A prediction about a specific event or relationship between variables
15
Q
What is a null hypothesis
A
No relationship between the variables (Ho)
16
Q
What is an alternative hypothesis
A
Makes a a prediction that there is a difference between the variables (H1)
17
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
Stating there is a difference but not the direction of the difference
18
Q
What is deductive reasoning?
A
- starts with a hypothesis
- facts need to be correct to make logical conclusion
19
Q
What is inductive reasoning?
A
Broad generalisations- conclusions made from false information
20
Q
What is abductive reasoning ?
A
Bringing together certain information together to make most logical reason
21
Q
Define temporal Order
A
One variable precedes another in time = one variable affects/predicts another variable
22
Q
What is the independent variable
A
Variable you change
23
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
Variable you measure. Depends on independent variable
24
Q
What is a predictor variable? (Antecedent)
A
Variable used to predict an outcome of interest
25
What is a outcome/criterion or response variable?
Outcome of predictor variable
26
What is a confounding variable?
Additional variables having an affect e.g. age
27
What is extraneous variables?
Any variable other than the independent or dependent variable. They can have a negative effect on study
28
What is a mediating variable?
Used to explain relationship between independent & dependent variable
29
What is a moderator variable
Increases or decreases the direction/strength of the relationship between independent & dependent variable
30
What is a control variable?
Variable that is kept the same
31
What are the 3 types of design/approaches to research
- quant
- qual
- mixed methods
32
What are the 3 parts of mixed methods?
- explanatory sequential (quant to qual)
- exploratory sequential (qual to quant)
- convergent (quant & qual together)
33
Wha is reliability?
Consistency
| Getting same results
34
What is validity?
Obtaining correct answer
Accuracy
Can be replicated
35
3 breaths of coverage
- micro-level = provides explanations to small bits of time, space or numbers
- meso-level = theories link micro & macro levels
- macro level = explain larger groups e.g. social institutions
36
What is evidence based practice?
Interpreting individual clinical expertise with best available external evidence from systematic research
37
What are the key principles of qualitative methods?
- understanding context
- understanding people
- understanding interaction
38
Quantification without qualification is....
Irrelevant
39
Qualification without quantification is...
Inaccurate
40
What are the 3 types of research dimensions?
- experimental
- quasi-experimental (manipulation present but NO randomisation
- non-experimental
41
What are 4 research designs?
- descriptive (documents conditions, attitudes or characteristics of individuals or groups
- exploratory (focuses on relationships among these factors)
- predictive (development of systems to predict criteria of interest)
- explanatory (testing hypothesis & explaining phenomena)
42
What are the 4 research timeframes?
- retrospective (past)
- prospective (present)
- longitudinal (over time)
- cross-sectional (one point in time)
43
What are non traditional designs?
- case studies
- historical research
- methodological research (development, testing, evaluation)
- meta analysis for quant & meta-synthesis for qual
- evaluation research e.g. how well policy is implemented & uselfull
- needs assessment e.g. needs of group/organisation
- action research (strategy brings about social change)
44
What are the 4 types of qualitative designs?
- phenomenology (human experience)
- ethnography (observe in natural habitat, social culture)
- grounded theory (observation & interpretation of phenomena, construction of theory through analysis of data, analysed through coding)
- philosophical enquiry (rational reflection upon experience, all about perspective & how you view it)
45
What are data collection methods for qual research?
- observation
- questionnaires
- interviewing
- focus groups
- field notes
- journal entries
- photography
- documents & records
46
What are the types of sampling?
- convenience
- quota
- purposive/theoretical/judgemental
- snowball
47
How do you know when you have a big enough sample size in qual research?
Data saturation
48
Types of data analysis for qual data?
- narrative (subjective view)
- descriptive (objective view)
- thematic (groups/themes)
- coding
- graphic (visual representation)
49
What are some strengths of qual research?
- data collected in naturalistic setting
- useful for studying small sample to describe complex phenomena
- can conduct cross case comparisons & analysis
- useful in determining idiographic causation
50
Limitations of qual research?
- might not be generalisable to other settings
- difficult to make predictions
- more difficult to test hypothesis
- may have less credibility
- data collection & analysis time consuming
- results more easily influenced by researchers biases & idiosyncrasies
51
What are examples of probability sampling?
- simple random e.g. names out a hat
- systematic random e.g. every 3rd person
- stratified random - same proportion of sample
- random cluster
52
Examples of non-probability sampling
- quota
- purposive
- volunteer (self selection & snowball)
- Haphazard (convenience)
53
What are the 4 types of data?
- nominal (data follows simple naming system to indicate commonality)
- ordinal (data follows a rank order by their position on a scale)
- interval (data had equal degree of difference between each position)
- ratio (data can be compared as multiples of one another e.g. age)
54
What is parametric statistics?
- normal or expected distribution
- homogenous (looks same on both sides of curve)
- independent
- data type = interval or ratio
- measured using mean
55
What in non-parametric statistics
- unexpected or not a normal distribution
- data = nominal or ordinal
- measure = median
56
What is level of significance?
- expressed as numerical probability value (p)
| - p value equates to the % likelihood that a result is due to chance
57
What does p<0.05 mean?
Probability less than 5%
58
What would the p value be if the probability was less than 1%?
P<0.01
59
What does p<0.001 mean?
Probability is less than 0.1%
60
What is a confidence interval (Cl)?
Range of scores within which the true parameter might exist e.g. 95%
61
What is the relationship between the alpher & p value?
Alpha value - sets the significance bar
P value determines whether you will get over the bar or not
If alpha = 0.05
If P is < than alpha (less than 5% of what you observe is due to chance)
If P is > than alpha (more than 5% due to chance)
62
What value is between 1 standard deviation of the mean?
68% of data
63
How many standard deviations is 95% of data?
2 standard deviations from the mean
64
How much of the data lies within 3SD of the mean?
99% confidence interval
65
What % is the median of a non-parametric curve
50%
66
What type of error is a false positive?
Type 1 error
67
What type of error is a false negative?
Type 2 error
68
What is the likelihood ratio?
Opposite of betting e.g. 1:1 = 50%, 1:4 = 80%
69
How do you work out post test odds?
Pre test odds x likelihood ratio = post test odds
70
How to calculate inter-rater reliability
Kappa = (Po -Pe)
———-
(I - Pe)
```
Po = observed proportion of agreement
Pe = proportion expected by chance
```
Used to determine observer bias
71
What is external validity
Being able to generalise research to other settings
72
What is internal validity?
Ability to draw link between treatment & dependent variable
73
If null hypo is true but you reject null hypo what is it?
False positive
74
If null hypo is false but you reject null hypo what is it?
True positive
75
If null hypo is true but you fail to reject null hypo, what is it?
True negative
76
If null hypo is false and you fail to reject null hypo, what is it?
False negative
77
Give examples of biostatistical tests
- chi square
- t test
- Mann- Whitney u test
- wilcoxson signed-rank test
- ANOVA (analysis of variance)
- regression
- correlation
- kappa
78
What is cluster randomisation?
Random sample from groups is selected
79
What is sham controlled?
Sham surgery (placebo surgery) = fake surgical intervention that omits the step thought to be therapeutically necessary
80
Which of these words might a quant study start with?
```
Do
Explore
Why
If
Understand
```
Do
81
Is probability sampling random?
Yes
82
```
Which of these is NOT a type of probability sampling?
Cluster random
Simple random
Columnar random
System random
```
Columnar random
83
Which is not a type of non-probability sampling?
- indirect sampling
- quota
- snowball
- purposive
- convenience
Indirect
84
True or false - surveys are useful for collecting retrospective data only
False
85
True of false - construct validity explores the structure of the tool & uses cross-referencing of questions to determine participant honesty?
False
86
True or false- content validity can be determined if one can review the tool & suggest what is being measured?
True
87
True or false - external validity explores how the sample represents the parent population
True
88
True or false? Criterion-related validity compares 2 different data collection instruments
True
89
Reliability can be tested using Cohen’s kappa - what level and above is considered acceptable?
0.6
90
Give an example of nominal measurement
Male/female
91
What does a p value of 0.04 suggest after 2 groups were statistically compared?
There is a difference between the groups
92
What concept is not a trustworthiness characteristic of qualitative research?
Correlation
93
Which philosopher developed phenomenology?
Heidegger
94
Can triangulation enhance truthfulness in a qual research?
Yes
95
Should informed consent always be gained in qual research?
No, but where possible
96
What are the 4 ways of knowing
Knowing-that (theoretical knowledge found in books & research journals that can be widely applied to different situations
Knowing-how ( practical knowledge gained from training sessions and also from past experiences)
Knowing-why (a deeper understanding of a situation that allows practitioners to work outside of standard procedures)
Knowing-who (personal knowledge of other people & ourselves that enables practitioners to apply general knowing-that & knowing-how to specific & unique cases
97
What is intuitive knowing?
Knowing the right thing to do without fully realising how or why you know it
98
What is hypothetico-deductivism?
Attempting to disprove a theory
99
Key principles of clinical governance
- pt & public involvement
- risk management
- clinical audit
- staffing & staff management
- education, training & continuing personal & professional judgement
- clinical effectiveness & use of clinical information to inform practice
100
What are the components of evidence based practice?
- research
- clinical expertise
- pt preferences
- resources
101
Define snowball sampling
When participants recommend someone else to participate (nominated sampling)
102
What is triangulation
Using different sources of data &/or different collection methods to look at same phenomenon but from different perspectives
103
What is purposive sampling?
Selection of participants who are believed to be able to give rich, robust info about phenomenon being researched
104
What is transferability?
Whether the findings are relevant to other settings or to other groups of people
105
What is dependability?
Whether findings would be consistent if the study was carried out again with similar participants or similar setting
106
What is confirmability?
If research findings can be tracked back to original data
107
What is content validity?
When each item on questionnaire is examined for relevance
108
What is criterion-related validity?
How well one measure predicts an outcome for another measure.
109
What is construct validity?
Degree to which test measures what it claims to be measuring
110
What is ecological validity?
Extent to which findings are applicable to participants natural social settings
111
What is external reliability?
Consistency over time
112
What is reliability coefficient
Indicates degree of reliability by describing strength of relationship between variables
113
Give an example of interval measurement
Temperature
114
Give an example of ordinal data
Average, Good, excellent
115
Common tests for exploring categorical data?
Chi-square and fishers exact test
116
Tests used to explore continuous data?
Mann-Whitney U
Kruskal-Wallis (non-parametric)
One & two tailed tests (parametric)
117
What is the Hawthorne effect?
Changing behaviour because aware you’re being observed
118
What is attention/interest thoughts?
Sentences with the purpose to keep the reader on track
119
What is intercoder agreement?
When 2 or more coders agree on codes used for the same passages in the text
120
What is nominal data?
Named data, which do NOT overlap in categories
121
What is ordinal data?
Data is placed in order or scale
122
What is ratio data?
Equal & definitive ratio between each data
| Has an absolute zero as point of origin (can NOT be negative numerical value)
123
What is interval data?
Data which is measure along a scale, with equal distance between each value.
124
What is Mann-Whitney U test?
Non-parametric test
| Compares differences between 2 independent groups when dependent variable is either ordinal or continuous
125
What is a T-test?
Normal distribution
| Test if there is a significant difference between the means of 2 groups
126
What is chi square test?
Determine whether there is a significant difference between the expected frequencies & observed frequencies in one or more categories
127
What is cohens kappa test?
Used to measure inter-rater reliability of qualitative items
128
When would a 1 tailed test be used?
Directional hypothesis
129
When would a 2 tailed test be used?
Non-directional hypothesis
130
What is a single blinded procedure
When participants aren’t aware of study hypothesis
131
What does a manipulation check measure?
Whether the study successfully manipulated the independent variable
132
What is specificity?
Ability to identify people without disease
133
What is sensitivity?
Ability to correctly identify those with a disease
134
What is law of averages?
Outlier which inaccurately represents the data
135
What are the 3 central tendencies?
Mean
Median
Mode
136
Define standard deviation?
Measure of amount of variation of set of values from the mean
