research methods 🔬 Flashcards
(210 cards)
1
Q
What is confidentiality? (Ethical Issues)
A
A participants right to have personal information protected
2
Q
What is deception? (Ethical Issues)
A
Where a participant is not told the true aims of a study eg what it will involve and therefore cannot give truly informed consent
3
Q
What is informed consent? (Ethical Issues)
A
Participants have the right to be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and the purpose of the research and their role in it so that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate.
4
Q
What is protection from harm? (Ethical Issues)
A
Participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects such and injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment.
5
Q
What is right to withdraw? (Ethical Issues)
A
Participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way and should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced.
6
Q
What is anonymity? (Ethical Issues)
A
A participants right to remain nameless
7
Q
What is competency? (Ethical Issues)
A
The researchers ability to deal professionally with issues arising during the course of the research programme
8
Q
Who is responsible for the ethical guidelines in Britain?
A
BPS British Psychological Society
9
Q
How do you obtain informed consent?
A
Through signing a letter of consent
10
Q
What are the three alternative ways of getting consent if it is impractical to get informed consent?
A
Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Retrospective consent
11
Q
What is presumptive consent?
A
Rather than attaining consent directly from participants, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If they agree then the consent of participants is “presumed”
12
Q
What is prior general consent?
A
Participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies, including those that involve deception. Through prior general consent they essentially consent to being deceived.
13
Q
What is retrospective consent?
A
Participants are asked for consent, after the study during the debriefing.
14
Q
what should participants be aware of during the debrief?
A
- aims of study
- any details not given previously
- told what their data will be used for
- right to withhold data
- reassurance their behavior is typical or normal to combat feelings of embarrassment
- offers of counseling if participants have been subject to stress
15
Q
What are two ways that researchers can deal with confidentiality?
A
- no names
- using numbers or initials
16
Q
What are the types of sampling?
A
- random
- systematic
- stratified
- opportunity
- volunteer
17
Q
What is random sampling?
A
- all members of a target population have an equal chance of being selected
- list of target population obtained and then everyone is assigned a number. Then through the lottery method a sample is generated
18
Q
What is systematic sampling?
A
- every nth number of the target population eg 3rd house
19
Q
What is stratified sampling?
A
- sample is reflective of the proportions of certain srata (sub-groups) within the target population
20
Q
What is an opportunity sample?
A
- researcher selects anyone who happens to be available and willing
21
Q
What is a volunteer sample?
A
- participants select themselves
22
Q
What does a “population” refer to?
A
A large group of individuals a particular researcher may be interested in studying eg students attending sixth form
23
Q
What does a “target population” refer to?
A
A particular section of the overall population in which the sample will be taken
24
Q
What does it mean if a sample is representative?
A
contains the same characteristics as the target population
25
what is generalizability?
the extent to which findings and conclusions can be broadly applied to the population
26
Strengths of random sampling?
- no bias
| - equal chance
27
Limitations of random sampling?
- not representative
- participants may refuse
- time consuming & difficult
28
Strengths of systematic sampling?
- no bias
29
Limitations of systematic sampling?
- not very representative
- time consuming
- might not want to take part
30
strengths of stratified sampling?
- more representative
| - free from bias
31
Limitations of stratified sampling?
- time consuming
- still not exactly representative
- not all will want to participate
32
Strengths of opportunity sampling?
- quick
| - easy
33
Limitations of opportunity sampling?
- not representative
- bias
- lacking generalizability
34
Strengths of volunteer sampling?
- easy
| - less time consuming
35
Limitations of volunteer sampling?
- unrepresentative
36
What are the two types of research hypotheses?
Directional
| Non-Directional
37
What is a directional hypothesis? (one tailed)
A hypothesis that predicts the direction of the results
38
What is a Non-Directional hypothesis? (two-tailed)
A hypothesis that does not produce a direction of results, this is due to a lack of previous research.
39
What is a null hypothesis?
A hypothesis that predicts that statistically significant effects or relationship will NOT be found.
40
What is an experimental method?
A situation in which an independent variable is manipulated to measure the effect on a dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
41
What is an aim?
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, eg the purpose of the study.
42
What is a hypothesis?
A statement made at the start of a study stating the relationship between variables
43
What is the difference between an aim and hypothesis?
A hypothesis is not always true whereas the aim must always be true and specific in order to prove the hypothesis
44
What is the Independent Variable?
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher so that they can measure the effect on the dependent variable
45
What is the dependent variable?
A variable that is measured by researcher. Any effect on this variable should be caused by changes in the independent variable
46
What is a control condition?
A condition within an experiment that provides a baseline measure of behavior without the manipulation of the independent variable. The results from the experimental condition are compared to this condition.
47
What is the experimental condition?
The condition in which the independent variable is manipulated.
48
What does it mean to operationalise a variable?
clearly define variables so that they are measureable
49
What are extraneous variables?
Any variable other than the independent variable, that may have an effect on the dependent variable such as
- noise
- temp
- light
50
What are confounding variables?
Any extraneous variable that varies systematically with the independent variable such as personality.
51
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may reveal the purpose of the investigation to participants
52
What is the ‘please-u’ effect?
Arising from demand characteristics, participants act in a way they believe is expected of them by the researcher therefore over performing to please the experimenter.
53
What is the ‘screw- u’ effect?
When participants act in the opposite way to what they think the researcher expects of them, deliberately underperforming to sabotage results.
54
What are investigator effects?
Any influence of the investigators behaviour, whether it be conscious or unconscious, on the dependant variable. Such as:
- accent
- manner
- choice of participants
- leading questions
- age
- gender
55
What is randomisation?
Participants are randomly allocated to a condition
56
What does randomisation help control?
Effects of investigator bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions within an experiment, therefore reducing extraneous variables.
57
What is counterbalancing?
A technique used within a repeated measures design to combat order effects involving half the participants experiencing the conditions in one order and the other half experiencing them in the opposite order.
58
What is standardisation?
Using the same procedures and instructions for all participants therefore reducing situational variables, investigator effects and demand characteristics.
59
What is a single-blind procedure?
Where participants are unaware of which condition they are partaking in. This aims to reduce demand characteristics and their effects upon the dependent variable.
60
What is a double-blind procedures?
Where neither participants nor investigator are aware of the condition a participant is partaking in. These combat demand characteristics and investigator effects
61
What are the three experimental designs?
Independent group design (IGD)
Repeated measures design (RMD)
Matched pair design
62
What does an independent group design entail?
- different participants in each condition
- two levels of the independent variable therefore some will take part in a control condition and some in an experimental condition
- allocation of participants is random
63
What are the strengths with using an independent group design?
- order effects avoided as participants only partake in one condition
- demand characteristics avoided as they only take part in one condition so are therefore less likely to guess the aim and alter behaviour accordingly
64
What are the limitations in using an independent group design?
- more participants required to gather the same amount of data as a RMD
- participant variables may be unaccounted for so differences o the DV may be due to the group characteristics rather than manipulation of the IV
65
What does a repeated measures design entail?
- all participants, all conditions
66
What are the strengths in using a repeated measures design?
- fewer participants required
| - more control over participant variables as the same people are in all conditions
67
What are the limitations in using a repeated measures design?
- order effects, some participants may have improved/declined between conditions
- demand characteristics are present as taking part in both conditions may lead them to guess the aim
68
What does a matched pairs design entail?
- participants being matched on key variables such as age
| - each member within the pair placed in a different condition
69
What are the strengths in using a matched pairs design?
- reduction of participant variables as participants have been closely matched in important aspects
- order effects avoided
- demand characteristics reduced
70
What are the limitations in using a matched pairs design?
- time consuming and expensive to match participants
| - individual differences may still have an effect as matches can never be exact
71
What are the different types of experiments?
Laboratory, Field, Natural, and Quasi
72
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that is set in a controlled environment with the researcher manipulating the IV and recording its' effect on the DV, whilst maintaining control of ay extraneous variables.
73
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting in which the researcher still manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV.
74
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment in which changes in the Independent variable are not due to the researcher and therefore would have normally occurred even without the researcher present. The researcher records effects on the DV.
75
What is a quasi-experiment?
A study in which an IV has not been determined by anyone with the variables just simply existing such as being old/young.
76
What are the strengths in conducting a laboratory experiment?
- higher internal validity due to high control of extraneous variables
- less ethical issues due to participant awareness in partaking
- higher reliability as high level of control allows accurate replication
77
What are the limitations in conducting a laboratory experiment?
- lack of external validity due to a artificial setting
| - presence of demand characteristics as participants aware they are being tested
78
What are the strengths in conducting a field experiment?
- higher external validity as setting is more natural
| - less demand characteristics as participants unaware of their role within the research
79
What are the limitations in conducting a field experiment?
- less internal validity as there is a greater chance of extraneous variables
- ethical issues may arise due to the participants lack of awareness of their role in research
- less reliable as the environment is less controlled
80
What are the strengths in conducting a natural experiment?
- higher external validity due to the natural setting
- less ethical issues as events would occur regardless
- less demand characteristics as participants respond to something the researcher as no control over
81
What are the limitations in conducting a natural experiment?
- lack of internal validity as extraneous variables are more likely
- less reliable as events are often one-off
82
What are the strengths in conducting a quasi-experiment?
- high internal validity because of a high control of variables
- less likely for ethical issues to arise as participants are aware of their role
- reliability may be higher as high control of variables allows for replication
83
What are the limitations in conducting a quasi-experiment?
- lacking in external validity due to unfamiliar environment
| - demand characteristics are participants are aware they are being tested
84
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted to check the procedures, materials, measuring scales etc work. A pilot study allows the researcher to make changes to their study if issues arise.
85
What are the strengths of conducting a pilot study?
- money and time saved in the long run
- ensures data collected is valid
- allows the researcher a chance to practice
86
What are the limitations in conducting a pilot study?
- more participants are required
- time and money could be wasted if no changes are required
- could lead to study being shared
87
What is an observation?
A non-experimental method of observing behaviour without having to ask. This allows for complex interactions to be studied in a more natural way.
THEY DO NOT HAVE AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
88
What is a naturalistic observation?
Researchers watching and recording behaviour in the setting in which it would normally occur
89
What is a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment with some variables managed
90
What is a covert observation?
When participants are unaware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded eg without consent
91
What is an overt observation?
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with knowledge and consent
92
What is a participant observation?
When a researcher becomes a member of the observed group
93
What is an non-participant observation?
When a researcher remains outside the observed group
94
What are the strengths and limitations of a naturalistic observation?
(+)
- higher external validity
- less demand characteristics
(-)
- lower internal validity due to extraneous variables
lower reliability due to lack of control over variables
95
What are the strengths and limitations of a controlled observation?
(+)
- higher internal validity due to less extraneous variables
- control over extraneous variables allows higher reliability
(-)
- lower external validity
- demand characteristics
96
What the strengths and limitations of a covert observation?
```
(+)
- higher internal validity
- lower demand characteristics
(-)
- ethical issues arise as participants may not wish to be observed
```
97
What are the strengths and limitations of a overt observation?
```
(+)
- more ethically acceptable
(-)
- lower internal validity
- demand characteristics
```
98
What are the strengths and limitations of a participant observation?
(+)
- high internal validity
(-)
- lower objectivity
99
What are the strengths and limitations of a non-participant observation?
(+)
- higher objectivity
(-)
- lower internal validity
100
What type of observation records every instance of a behaviour in detail, and is usually used when the behaviours a research is interested in do not occur often?
Unstructured observation
101
What is a structured observation?
An observation in which a researcher uses various systems such as sampling techniques and behavioural categories to organise observations
102
What are target behaviours?
Behaviours that are the main focus of an investigation.
103
What is it called when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable?
Behavioural categories
104
What is a behavioural checklist?
A checklist of behaviour that is to be individually observed in components. These components should be observable and measurable behaviours.
105
What is continuous recording?
Making note of everything without a pause
106
What is event sampling?
When the researcher records the amount of times a specific behaviour or event occurs in a target individual/group
107
What is time sampling?
The researcher records behaviour within a determined time frame
108
Define inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which two or more observers within the observation of behaviour agree.
109
How is inter-observer reliability measured?
Through correlating the observations of two or more observers, a correlation of +0.8 is considers high inter-observer reliability
110
What is quantitative data?
Data that can be counted, usually given in numerical form
111
What is qualitative data?
Data expressed in words/non-numerical form
112
What is bias?
When the observers expectations affect what they see/hear, thus reducing the validity of the observation
113
What are self-report techniques? What are the two types?
Any method that involves the person stating or explaining their feelings, opinions, behaviours, and/or experiences related to a given topic. The two types include: interviews and questionnaires.
114
What are questionnaires?
A set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and/or experiences which the participant responds to.
They can be used within an experiment to asses the dependent variable.
115
What type of question has no fixed choice of response, allowing the respondents to answer in any way therefore producing qualitative data that is rich in depth/detail but may be difficult to analyse?
Open questions
116
What is a closed question?
A question with a fixed set of responses such as "yes" or "no". It could also include rating on a scale. This produces numerical data which is easy to analyse but may lack the necessary depth.
117
What are the three types of rating scales used in closed questions?
Likert scales
Rating scales
Fixed choice options
118
What is a likert scale?
A scale in which a respondent expresses their agreement with a statement through a scale of 5 points, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree
119
What is a rating scale?
Respondents identify a value that represents their feeling towards a topic, e.g. (1) "very entertaining" and (10) "not at all entertaining"
120
What does a fixed choice option include?
A list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate which one of the options apply to them
121
Why is clarity key in designing both questionnaires and interviews?
If respondents are confused by questions or misinterpret them, the quality of information collected will be affected.
122
What common errors should be avoided in question design?
- overuse of jargon
- emotive language and leading questions
- double-barrelled questions
- double negatives
123
What does jargon refer to?
technical terms that may confuse a normal person
124
Why is the use of emotive language within a question bad and how can it be avoided?
It makes the researchers attitude towards a subject clear and should be replaced with more neutral words.
125
What are leading questions?
Questions that guide a participant to a certain answer.
126
What is the problem with double-barrelled questions or double negatives?
Questions like these may be difficult for participants to understand and respond to, for example respondents may agree with half the question but not the other half. These questions should be made more straightforward.
127
Why are questionnaires good?
- cost-effective as they gather large amounts of data quickly because they can be largely distributed
- can be completed without the researchers presence which reduces the effort involved
- data usually straightforward to analyse especially if they mainly use fixed-choice closed questions. This data can be used in statistical analysis allowing for comparisons to be made between groups of people
128
What problems may arise in questionnaires?
- Social desirability bias, participants want to present themselves in a positive light which may influence their answers
- Response bias, as participants may answer in the same way because of either completing it too quickly or failing to read the questions properly.
129
What is an interview?
A live encounter in which an interviewer asks a set of questions to asses the interviewees thoughts/experiences. These questions may be pre-determined (structured interview) or may develop as the interview progresses (unstructured interview)
130
What kind of interview includes questions that are prepared in advance?
Structured interview.
131
What is an unstructured interview?
An interview that may start with some general aims and questions but then allows the interviewees answers to form sub-sequent questions. Interview is free-flowing allowing interviewees to expand and elaborate on answers.
132
What does a semi-structured interview involve?
Some pre-determined questions and some developed in response to answers given. This allows for interviewees to ask follow up questions
133
What is an interview schedule?
Pre-set questions to be used by an interviewer
134
How may interviewer bias occur?
Through the way interviewers respond to participants which will affect results obtained
135
How might interview bias be reduced?
Through a standardised interview schedule?
136
Where should interviews be conducted?
In a quiet room away from other people to increase the likelihood a participant is open.
137
How can rapport be established in an interview?
Through starting with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed and comfortable.
138
What should interviewees be reminded of?
That their answers will be confidential - especially if they concern sensitive/personal topics.
139
What are the strengths and limitations associated with a STRUCTURED interview?
(+)
- reliable as questions are standardised/pre-determined
- less chance for interview bias
- data analysis easier and more straightforward
(-)
- reduced validity as they have been unable to get additional information from participants
- social desirability bias may be present as my using a standardised set of questions researchers have less opportunity to catch them in a lie
140
What are the strengths and limitations associated with a SEMI-STRUCTURED or UN-STRUCTURED interview?
(+)
-increased validity as they can delve deeper into participants thoughts and feelings
- social desirability bias may be less likely as a highly skilled researcher may be able to catch a lie through additional questions
(-)
- lower reliability due to questions varying
- data-analysis will be complicated as it is difficult to draw conclusions from un-standardised questions
-interviewer bias as there is no interview schedule so answers may be impacted
141
What are case studies?
An in depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution, or event.
They often involve analysis of unusual individuals/events as they provide insight into areas that would be unethical for psychologists to study.
142
What type of data is usually collected from case studies?
Qualitative data in from interviews, questionnaires, and observations. However, quantitative data may also be collected if the person/people complete experimental or psychological testing.
143
What do case studies tend to be?
longitudinal
144
Examples of case studies?
- HM: underwent brain surgery for epilepsy through removing hippocampus which we now understand is vital in memory functioning
- Little Albert: conditioning to create phobia
- KF: showed different types of short-term memory
145
What is a strength of case studies? (detailed insight, unusual behaviour)
They offer rich and detailed insights into unusual forms of behaviour.
For example, HM revealed the importance of the hippocampus in memory.
This allows us to understand more about human behaviour that could not be investigated using traditional research methods.
146
What is a strength of case studies? (hypotheses)
They may generate hypotheses for future study.
For example, KF showed there were different types of STM.
This led to the development of the working memory model to explain KFs' behaviour which the multi-store model failed to explain.
147
What is a limitation of case studies? (single individual/small group)
They only tend to involve an individual or small group.
For example, HM and KF are merely individuals who became case studies regarding memory.
Just because HMs' hippocampus was involved in memory and KF had different types of STM, this may not be the case for everyone.
148
What is a limitation of case studies? (validity)
Researchers are very involved in case studies which could reduce validity.
Case studies are longitudinal and involve getting to know the individual(s) and their families well.
This may mean that information may be subjectively selected and interpreted rather than truthful.
149
What is a limitation of case studies? (replication/reliability)
Case studies can't be replicated as they involve analysis of unusual individuals/events.
For example, after contracting encephalitis Clive Wearing experienced amnesia and was unable to form memories.
Psychologists cannot ethically induce the same illness to see if they experience amnesia, therefore reducing reliability of findings.
150
What is content analysis?
A type of observational study which behavior is indirectly studied by examining communication produced by people. This can come in the form of, spoken interaction, written, or media and may involve either or both quantitive (data placed in categories and counted) or qualitative analysis (analyzed in themes)
151
What is the aim of content analysis?
To summarize and describe the data in a systematic way so conclusions can be drawn.
152
What kind of approach does content analysis adopt in analyzing data?
Deductive approach - meaning that researchers already know what they are looking for and create categories reflecting this.
153
What does the coding of data within content analysis involve?
Reading the data and identifying each instance of the chosen categories (eg. words, sentences, phrases) through a tally.
154
How might content analysis generate qualitative data?
Through thematic analysis - an inductive approach to analyzing qualitative data which involves identifying ideas/themes within the data.
155
What is a strength of content analysis? (ethical issues)
It can get around many ethical issues associated with psychological research.
For example, material analyzed may be something like TV adverts which already exist.
This means there are no issues with obtaining consent.
156
What is a strength of content analysis? (flexible research method)
It is a flexible research method.
Both qualitative and quantitative can both be produced.
Content analysis therefore can be deemed more favorable than research methods that only produce one type of data.
157
What is a strength of content analysis? (ecological validity)
Content analysis produced data high in ecological validity.
For example, analyzing TV adverts for stereotypical gender roles in 2019.
ThIs means that data being studied is reflective of the “real world” and what people actually do.
158
What is a limitation of using content analysis? (why)
Content analysis merely tells us what but not why.
For example, it tells us how many adverts show stereotypical gender roles in 2019.
This means the data lacks meaning and does not provide us with why traditional gender roles are still displayed in media.
159
What is a limitation of using content analysis? (observer bias)
There is a risk of observer bias.
Researchers are in control of observing data and deciding which category it fits into and the themes that arise.
The interpretation of material is very much subjective thus reducing the validity of findings.
160
What is a correlation?
A technique that illustrates the strength/direction of an associated/relationship between two or more co variables
161
What number indicates a strong correlation?
0.8 - 1
162
What number indicates a mild correlation?
0.5 - 0.8
163
What number is a weak correlation?
0.3 - 0.5
164
What number shows no correlation?
0-0.3
| the closer to 0 the more it shows a zero correlation
165
Why can correlations not establish a cause and effect?
Because there is no manipulation of a variable
166
What is a strength of using a correlation? (preliminary tool)
Useful as a preliminary tool for research.
For example, assessing the strength and direction of a relationship can provide a precise and quantifiable measure of how variables are related.
This can provide ideas for future research.
Therefore correlations are often used as a starting point to asses patterns before commiting to an experimental study
167
What is a strength of using correlations? (Quick and Cost Effective)
Relatively quick and cost-effective to carry out.
There is no need for a controlled environment or manipulation of variables.
Secondary data can be used which makes correlations less time consuming and expensive than experiments
168
What is a limitation of using correlations? (lack of experimental manipulation)
Due to the lack of experimental manipulation and control within a correlation, they merely tell us variables are related.
This means correlations cannot establish cause and effect.
169
What is a limitation of correlations? (third-variable problem)
Correlations suffer from third-variable problem where another untested variable causes a relationship between co-variables.
Eg. a strong positive relationship between caffeine and anxiety level, could be impacted bu another variable.
This variable could cause the relationship but we might be unaware of it.
170
What is a limitation of Correlations? (misuse/misinterpretation)
They can occasionally be misused or misinterpreted.
For example a statistic often spread is that those raised in a single parent family were more likely to be involved in crime.
This presentation of variables as ‘causal facts’ by the media suggests there is a cause and effect relationship which may not be true in reality.
171
What are the two types of data?
qualitative and quantitative
172
What are the strengths of using qualitative data?
- rich, detail data
- broader scope allowing participants to develop their thoughts, feelings and opinions
- this means the data has greater external validity
173
What are the limitations of qualitative data?
- difficult to analyze
- patterns and trends difficult to establish
- this means conclusions may be subjective
- reduces validity and reliability
174
What are the strengths of quantitive data?
- relatively simple to analyze
- patterns and trends obvious
- conc objective
- inc validity and reliability
175
What are the limitations of quantitive data?
- much more narrow in scope and meaning than qualitative data
- does not give opportunity to develop responses
- lower external validity
176
What is primary data?
Original data that has been collected first hand by the researcher linking to the purpose of the study.
Primary research methods include experiments, questionnaires, interviews and observations.
177
What is a strength of primary data? (specific)
It is collected for a specific purpose.
Questionnaires and interviews can be designed to specifically target information required.
This inc internal validity.
178
What is a strength of primary data? (authenticity)
Authenticity of data can be checked during collection.
Researchers are able to see check if data is genuine which cannot be done with secondary data.
This inc internal validity.
179
What is a strength of primary data? (current)
Data is current.
This is because researchers are collecting it first hand, thus reflecting the current time period.
This increases external validity.
180
What is a strength of primary data? (quality of methods)
Quality of methods used to collect data can be checked.
The researcher is aware of the procedure and is therefore able to check how genuine data is and that it has not been changed.
This increases both validity and reliability.
181
What is a limitation of primary data? (time)
Requires time and effort.
The researcher has to plan, prepare and resource the study.
This means that data such as secondary data may be quicker and more cost-effective.
182
What is secondary data?
Data collected by someone other than the researcher and therefore is not specific to the study.
The researcher has no contact with the participants.
Secondary data may include, journal, articles, books and websites.
183
What is a strength of secondary data? (time/effort)
Uses very little time and effort.
Researchers do not have to plan , prepare, or resource the study.
This is a strength in comparison to primary data as it takes alot less effort.
184
What is a limitation of secondary data? (specific)
Secondary data is not collected for a specific purpose.
The study has not been designed to specifically target the information the researcher requires.
This decreases the internal validity.
185
What is a limitation of secondary data? (authenticity)
The authenticity of data can not be checked during collection.
Researchers are not able to see whether the data is genuine like they can with primary data.
This decreases internal validity.
186
What is a limitation of secondary data? (outdated)
The data collected may be outdated.
Researchers are not collecting the data first hand meaning it may not reflect the current time period.
This decreases external validity.
187
What is a limitation of secondary data? (methods)
The quality of methods used in collecting data cannot be checked.
This is because the researcher is not aware of the procedure and therefore cannot repeat the study to check the genuineness of results.
This decreases the validity and reliability.
188
What is a meta-analysis?
A research method involving secondary data from a large number of studies with the same research questions and methods.
Qualitative analysis may be done with this data through discussing findings/conclusions.
Quantitative approach may also be applied through statistically analysing the combined data, eg calculating an effect size (overall statistical measure of difference/relationship between variables across studies.)
189
What is a strength of using a meta-analysis? (confidence)
It allows us to view data with much more confidence.
The research has already been published eg in a journal.
This means their validity is known.
190
What is a strength of using a meta-analysis? (generalizable)
Data can be generalized to larger populations.
As meta-analysis involves a number of research pieces, sample sizes are increased.
This increases the generalizability.
191
What is a limitation of using a meta-analysis? (bias)
Can be prone to publication bias.
The research may not select all relevant studies ,e.g. leaving out those with negative/non-significant results.
This leads to biased data and perhaps even incorrect conclusions drawn.
192
What are the three measures of central tendency?
mean
median
mode
193
How do you calculate the mean?
Adding up all the values and dividing them by the number of values.
194
Strengths and limitations of using the mean?
(+)
- Most sensitive measure as it includes all scores/values. This makes it more representative.
(-)
- Easily distorted by extreme values as a very different score can move the mean closer to the outlier. The mean is therefore susceptible of skewing the final figure.
- Can only be used with universal values, eg. scores that are in cm and seconds. This can limit the types of data this measure can be used with.
195
How to calculate the median?
Find the central value in a set of data by arranging the values from lowest to highest.
196
What are the strengths and limitations of using the median?
(+)
- not easily distorted by extreme values, eg not impacted by “outlier” scores. This means the median is not susceptible to skewing of final figure
- easy to calculate, means there are no issues with data analysis
- can be used with values that do not use a universal measure eg scores from a rating scale, this form of central tendency it is not limited in types of data
(-)
- not as sensitive as mean, as it does not include all values, this makes it less representative
197
How do you calculate the mode?
Find the most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
198
What are the strengths and limitations of using the mode?
(+)
- very easy to calculate as you only have to identify which number occurs more than once, this means there are little issues with data analysis
- only central tendency that is used with nominal data, eg if a class was asked to list fave desserts the only way to identify average was to select mode. This demonstrates the value of the mode
(-)
- it is a crude measure. The mode often largely differs from the mean/median. This suggests it is unrepresentative.
199
What are measures of dispersion?
A term for any measure of the spread/variation in a set of scores.
eg
- range
- standard deviation
200
How do you calculate the range?
Subtract the lowest score from the highest score
201
What are the strengths and limitations of using the range?
(+)
- easy to calculate as it involves subtracting the lowest value from the highest value. This means less issues with data analysis.
(-)
- only takes into account extreme values, making it unrepresentative
202
What is standard deviation?
A calculation telling us how much scores deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each score.
203
What does it mean if theres a smaller standard deviation?
The tighter the dispersion/spread is within a data set, this means that people are impacted similarly by an IV in an experiment.
There is not alot of variation between data scores and the mean.
204
What does it mean if the standard deviation is larger?
There is a greater dispersion/spread within a data set meaning that people are impacted differently by an IV in an experiment.
There is a large variation between data scores and the mean.
205
What are the strengths and limitations of using standard deviation?
(+)
- more precise measure of dispersion than the range as it includes all values, this makes it more representative.
(-)
- it is easily distorted by extreme values. A score that is very different moves the mean closer to the outlier score. This means standard deviation is susceptible to skewing of the final figure.
206
How do you calculate percentage increase?
difference between values / original value x 100
207
How do you calculate percentage decrease?
difference in values / original value x 100
208
What is the accepted level of probability in psychology?
5% of p = 0.05
209
What does p < 0.05 mean?
That there is a 5% probability or less chance that the results of a study occurred by fluke and 95% probability that they were due to a change in the IV
210
What is peer review?
Peer review is the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research that will be published is of high quality.
