Research Methods Flashcards
(187 cards)
1
Q
Reliability
A
Being able to trust the source to be accurate - consistency/repeatable
How consistent it is
2
Q
Validity
A
How accurate, trustworthy, correct it is
Try different versions - change researcher or IV
3
Q
Generalisability
A
How can we apply the findings from the research beyond the experiment (to others and the real world)
4
Q
Internal validity
A
Does the test accurately measure what it is set out to measure?
5
Q
What does it mean if the internal validity is high?
A
The results can be trusted
6
Q
What word is about:
How consistent and repeatable the research is
A
Reliability
7
Q
What word is about:
How accurate the research is
A
Validity
8
Q
What word is about:
How we apply the findings from the research beyond the experiment
A
Generalisability
9
Q
What word is about:
How accurately the test measures what it is set out to measure
A
Internal validity
10
Q
The 2 types of external validity:
A
Ecological
Mundane realism
11
Q
What is ecological validity?
A
How the environment they are in will effect how realistically the participant will act
12
Q
What is the ecological validity like in a participant’s natural environment?
A
High
13
Q
What is the benefit of high ecological validity?
A
The results can be generalised more easily (with more certainty)
14
Q
What is mundane realism?
A
How realistic the task is
15
Q
What is the mundane realism like if the task a participant has to carry out is something they would do in real life?
A
High
16
Q
What is the benefit of high mundane realism?
A
The results can be generalised more easily (with more certainty)
17
Q
What does generalisability depend on?
A
The sample, the time period, they type of research method and the task being given
18
Q
When does the reliability of experiment increase?
A
When we control as many things as possible when conducting the research
19
Q
Why is research conducted?
A
To gain a better understanding of something/someone to provide a solution
20
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A prediction of what will happen
21
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
Specific e.g. increases, improves, more (and their opposites)
States the difference caused between the 2 groups/conditions
Based on previous research
22
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
Vague e.g. will change, affects, has an effect
Will be a difference between the 2 groups/conditions but unsure what the difference will be
NOT based on previous research
23
Q
What must a hypothesis have?
A
An IV, a DV and indicator words of its direction (better/worse/difference)
24
Q
What is the Independent Variable?
A
What you change - groups or conditions
25
What are the Control Variables?
What we aren't interested in, used as a baseline
26
What is the Dependant Variable?
What you measure (must have a unit of measure)
27
What is meant by operationalising?
Make measurable and specific
28
Why are variables operationalised?
So we can test and measure the variables
| If they are vague/fuzzy, people will not trust the results
29
What are extraneous variables?
Any variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependant variable if not controlled
30
What could extraneous variables affect?
The validity of the DV
31
2 types of extraneous variables:
Participant
| Situational
32
What is the participant EV?
Variables related to individual characteristics of each participant that may impact how the respond
33
What is the situational EV?
Factors of the environment or methodology of the experiment that can unintentionally affect the results of the study
34
What is easier to control: participant or situational EV?
Situational
35
What are confounding variables?
An EV that could have affected the DV of the study
| Discovered after the study has been conducted
36
What is the problem caused by confounding variables?
You can't tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or confounding variable
37
What does confounding variables possibly affecting the DV mean?
The outcome in invalid
38
What are order effects?
Change to the DV caused by the order of the research the Pts take part in
E.g. Get better with practice or fatigued
39
What is meant by experimental design?
How participants are used in experiments
40
3 types of experimental design:
Independent measures
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
41
What happens to the participants during independent measures experiments?
Participants only experience one condition
42
What happens to the participants during repeated measures experiments?
Participants experience all conditions - data is compared
43
What happens to the participants during matched pairs experiments?
Participants are pair based on a set of characteristics. They then experience one condition only - data is directly compared
44
Demand characteristics for independent measures experiments:
+ Less chance
45
Demand characteristics for repeated measures experiments:
- More likely
46
Demand characteristics for matched pairs experiments:
+ Less chance
47
Order effects for independent measures experiments:
+ None
48
Order effects for repeated measures experiments:
- Higher as participants may improve or get fatigued in each condition
49
Order effects for matched pairs experiments:
+ None
50
Effects of individual differences for independent measures experiments:
- Can affect the DV
51
Effects of individual differences for repeated measures experiments:
+ None
52
Effects of individual differences for matched pairs experiments:
+ They are reduced by the matching pairs
53
Economical issues of independent measures experiments:
- More participants needed
54
Economical issues of repeated measures experiments:
+ Less participants needed
55
Economical issues of matching pairs experiments:
- Takes more time
| - More participants needed
56
General population:
Everyone in the world
57
Target population:
The entire population/group that a researcher is interested in researching and analysing
58
Sample:
The group of people who take part in the investigation. A proportion of these are taken from the target population, ideally an accurate representation of them
59
Sampling Method:
The method used to select the sample of participants from the target population
60
Representation:
The sample is an accurate reflection of the target population
61
Bias:
When certain groups may be under or overrepresented in a sample
62
Generalisability:
The extent to which the findings can be applied to the target population, if the sample is representative of the target population
63
When are confounding variables assessed?
After the research has been conducted
64
When are extraneous variables conducted?
Before the study is conducted
65
Difference between confounding and extraneous variables:
EV is before the experiment is conducted so the researcher can try to control them
Confounding are identified after the experiment has been conducted and can make the data invalid
66
What word describes:
| The group that a researcher is interested in researching and analysing
Target population
67
What word describes:
| The group of people taking part in the experiment
Sample
68
What word describes:
| The method used to select the sample of participants
Sampling method
69
What word describes:
| How accurately the sample reflects the target population
Representation
70
What word describes:
| When certain groups are under or overrepresented in a sample
Bias
71
What word describes:
| The extent of which the findings can be applied to the target population
Generalisability
72
What is Random Sampling?
A list of the target population is obtained and Pts are chosen randomly
73
What is the best feature of Random Sampling?
Everyone from the target population has an equal chance of being picked
74
What is Opportunity Sampling?
Selecting whoever is available at the time
75
Representation from Opportunity Sampling:
Doesn't give a proper representation - only people available take part
76
What is Systematic Sampling?
When the nth person of the target population is selected in a sampling frame
77
What is a sampling frame?
A numbered list of everyone in the target population
78
Representation of Systematic Sampling:
Doesn't give a proper representation
79
What is Volunteer Sampling?
When people select themselves to be part of the research - only a certain type of person would do this
80
How does Volunteer Sampling usually take place?
A newspaper/advert is usually published and those who are interested put themselves forward
81
Representation of Volunteer Samplng:
Doesn't give a proper representation
82
What is Stratified Sampling?
When the target population is divided into subcategories (strata) and a sample is obtained from each group, proportional to how it occurs in the target population. When the sample numbers are obtained for each strata, Pts are randomly generated
83
Representation of stratified Sampling:
Proportionate Representation - represents the target population
84
Formula for Stratified Sampling:
number in strata / total number in original participants x number needed for the sample
85
4 types of experiments:
Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi
86
Lab experiments - allocation of participants:
Allow for a random allocation of participants into controlled and experimental groups
87
Lab experiments - levels of control:
High (extraneous and independent variables)
88
Lab experiments - strengths:
Reliable
High internal validity
Consent
89
Lab experiments - weaknesses:
Low mundane realism
Cannot be generalised
High in demand characteristics
90
Lab experiments - reliability:
High levels of control - easy to repeat - increases reliability
91
Lab experiments - Internal validity:
High - precise control of extraneous and independent variables
92
Lab experiments - consent:
The participants are aware of the experiment taking place
93
Lab experiments - generalisation:
Low ecological validity - artificial setting - not certain if realistic behaviour is being seen - cannot be generalised
94
Lab experiments - mundane realism:
Low - involves artificial materials and unrealistic tasks - reduces validity
95
Lab experiments - demand characteristics:
High - guess aims and change behaviour - reduces internal validity
96
Field experiments - setting:
Natural - in every day environment for participants
97
Field experiments - strengths:
Can be generalised
High in mundane realism
Demand characteristics low
98
Field experiments - weaknesses:
Low control
| No consent
99
Field experiments - generalisation:
High in ecological validity - realistic nature - pts react naturally - can be generalised
100
Field experiments - mundane realism:
High - realistic tasks - increases validity
101
Field experiments - demand characteristics:
Low - rarely realise part of a study - less likely to guess aims and change behaviour - increases internal validity
102
Field experiments - control:
Low - can't control world (extraneous variables) - 'cause and effect' between IV and DV cannot be assumes with certainty - low internal validity
103
Field experiments - consent:
Participants are unaware they are being researched on
104
What are natural experiments?
When a naturally occurring event in the real world is used
105
IV in field experiments:
Manipulated in a real life setting
106
IV in natural experiments:
Develops naturally from the event, researcher hasn't manipulated it
107
IV in quasi experiment:
Pre-existing (naturally occurring) difference between people that has occurred without the experimenter manipulating it e.g. gender, age
108
Natural experiments - strengths:
Can be used in situations that cannot be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
High ecological validity
Less chance of demand characteristics affecting results
109
Natural experiments - weaknesses:
Cannot randomly allocate participants
Limited opportunity for research
Cannot be generalised
110
Natural experiments - demand characteristics:
Less chance - may not know they are being researched on - increases internal validity
111
Natural experiments - allocation of participants:
Cannot randomly allocate - bias - pre-existing difference may act as a confounding variable - cannot establish a cause and effect between IV and DV - low internal validity
112
Natural experiments - opportunity for research
Limited - have to wait for natural event to occur
113
Natural experiments - example of being used in situations with practical/ethical problems:
Orphans - children cannot be separated from parents
114
Natural experiments - generalisation:
Each event is unique - cannot be generalised
115
Where can quasi experiment participants be studied?
In lab or field
116
Where are quasi experiments usually conducted?
Under controlled conditions, like labs
117
Quasi experiment - strengths:
Controlled and reliable
| Consent
118
Quasi experiment - weaknesses:
Cannot randomly allocate participants
119
Quasi experiment - control and reliability:
Control over extraneous variables - reliable - 'cause and effect' established - increases internal validity
120
Quasi experiment - allocation of participants:
Cannot randomly allocate them - pre-existing differences may act as confounding variable - cannot establish 'cause and effect' relationship - lowers internal validity
121
How many ethical issues are there?
5
122
What are the ethical issues?
```
Informed consent
Deception
Right to withdraw
Protection from mental and physical harm
Confidentiality
```
123
What are the regulations for informed consent?
Participants should know as much as possible about the research before they agree to do it. They should also be made aware of the study aims and their rights (right to withdraw). Formal documentation with the Pts signature should be obtained.
124
What should participants be aware of to do with informed consent?
Study aims, their rights and all the details about the research
125
What has to be obtained for informed consent?
Formal documentation with Pts signature
126
What has to be done if a participant is under 16, for informed consent?
A parent/legal guardian must sign a documentation of consent
127
What are the regulations for deception?
Participants should not be tricked about the true nature of the research/study. They should not be deliberately mislead or have information withheld.
128
Should participants have information withheld?
No
129
What are the regulations for rights to withdraw?
Participants should be able to stop taking part in a study at any time and their data should be destroyed. This should be reinforced before the research commences, during and when testing has finished.
130
Are participants able to stop taking part in a study when they wish?
Yes
131
When should a participants right to withdraw be reinforced?
Before research commences, during and when when testing has finished
132
What are the regulations for protection of mental and physical harm?
Participants should be in the same physical and mental/emotional state at the end of the study as they were at the beginning. This includes stress, embarrassment and they should not be put at any more risk that what they would encounter in their daily lives
133
According to protection from mental and physical hard, participants should not be put at any more risk than...
... what they would encounter in their daily lives
134
What are the regulations for confidentiality?
The Data Protection Act states that participants identity must be kept anonymous; all data must be protected by passwords, all locations must be unidentifiable, participants should be referred to be numbers of code only the researcher knows
135
What should participants be referred to as part of confidentiality?
Numbers of code only the researcher knows
136
Is it justified if informed consent is not obtained?
Yes
137
Is it justified to deceive a participant?
Yes
138
Is it justified if the right to withdraw is withheld?
No, never
139
Is it justified if participants aren't protected from mental and physical harm?
No, never
140
Is it justified if participant's confidentiality isn't adhered to?
No, never
141
Why is informed consent not being gained justifiable?
To reduce demand characteristics, provided that the benefits outweigh the costs
142
Why is deceiving a participant justifiable?
To reduce demand characteristics, provided that the benefits outweigh the costs
143
How can not gaining informed consent be rectified?
Debriefing the participant
Having prior general consent
Presumptive consent
Getting retrospective consent
144
How can deceiving a participant be rectified?
Debriefing the participants
| Giving the participant the right to withdraw
145
How can harming a participant's mental/physical state be rectified?
Providing counselling
| Paying for the participant's medical care (including therapy)
146
Variables that could affect the results (confounding):
Demand characteristics
Investigator effects
Social desirability
147
Ways to reduce impact of confounding variables:
```
Randomisation
Standardisation
Pilot studies
Single-blind procedure
Double-bling procedure
```
148
Demand characteristics:
Any cue from a researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by the participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation
149
What can demand characteristics result in?
Participants changing their behaviour within the research situation
150
What do demand characteristics (potentially) reveal?
The purpose of the investigation
151
Investigator effects:
Any effect of the investigator's behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome
152
Can investigator effects be conscious or unconscious?
Both
153
Social desirability:
A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents themselves in better light
154
Randomisation:
The use of chance methods to reduce researcher's unconscious biases when designing an investigation
155
What does randomisation attempt to control?
Investigator effects
156
What part of the investigation process does randomisation effect?
Designing of an investigation
157
Standardisation:
Using exactly the same formalised instructions and procedures for all participants in a research study so as to avoid investigator effects caused by having different instructions/procedures
158
What does standardisation attempt to control?
Investigator effects
159
What is needed for standardistaion?
Formalised instructions and procedures
160
Pilot studies:
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that the procedure, materials etc. work and allow the researcher to make any changes or modifications if necessary
161
What is the aim of pilot studies?
To check that the procedure, materials etc. work
162
What do pilot studies allow?
The researcher to make any changes or modifications if necessary
163
Single-blind procedure:
A type of research design in which a participant is unaware of research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are recieving
164
Double-blind procedure:
Neither the participant or the researcher conducting the study are aware of the research aims or other important details of a study, and thus have no expectations that may alter a participant's behaviour
165
What are participants unaware of in single-blind procedures?
Research aims and/or of which condition of the experiment they are recieving
166
Who is unaware of research details in a single-blind procedure?
The participant
167
Who is unaware of research details in a double-blind procedure?
The participant and the researcher conducting the experiment
168
Benefits of double-blind prodecure:
There are no expectations that may alter a researcher's or participant's behaviour
169
Quantative:
Numerical data - measure by numbers
170
Qualitative:
Non-numerical data - descriptions, meanings of behaviour etc.
171
Primary data:
Data collected directly from first-hand experience - done yourself e.g. designing, testing, analysing
172
Secondary data:
Data collected by others for a different purpose - repurposed e.g. government data
173
Benefits of quantative:
Easy to analyse using descriptive stats - enables us to make conclusions
174
Benefits of qualitative:
Provides detailed information - gives insight
175
Benefits of primary data:
Lots of control - can make sure the data collection fits the aims - increases internal validity
176
Benefits of secondary data:
Easier and cheaper to access
177
Disadvantages of quantative:
Data may oversimplify reality
178
Disadvantages of qualitative:
Harder to analyse and difficult to draw conclusions
179
Disadvantages of primary data:
Lengthy and expensive process
| Researcher's bias
180
Disadvantages of secondary data:
Will (potentially) have to deal with huge amounts of data
| May not fit exact needs of the study - lacks internal validity
181
Measures of central tendency:
Mean
Mode
Median
182
Measures of dispersion:
Range
183
What is mean?
Average
184
What is mode?
Most common
185
What is median?
Central value when presented highest to lowest
186
What is range?
Difference between highest and lowest data value
187
What do bar charts need?
Appropriate title that includes IV and DV
Appropriately labelled x and y axis
Bards that DO NOT touch each other
Appropriate scale
