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Psychology AQA A Level > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

What is the independent variable

A

The variable the researcher manipulates (experimental conditions)

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2
Q

What is the dependent variable

A

The variable being measured (must be operationalised)

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3
Q

What is an extraneous variable

A

Any variable that COULD affect the DV (not IV)

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4
Q

What is a confounding variable

A

A variable that HAS affected the DV (not IV)

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5
Q

What is a lab experiment

A
  • Researcher directly manipulates IV to see effect on DV
  • Controlled environment
  • PPs randomly allocated to condition
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6
Q

What is a Field Experiment

A
  • Researcher directly manipulates IV to see effect on DV

* Takes place in real world

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7
Q

What is a Natural Experiment

A

• Researcher makes use of naturally occurring IV to see effect on DV

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8
Q

• What is a quasi-experiment

A
  • Researcher makes use of naturally occurring IV to see effect on DV
  • IV is a difference between people that already exists (gender, age)
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9
Q

Strengths of Lab Experiment

A

• High level of control over variables.
- Prevents EV from becoming CV

• Cause and effect is easy to identify

• Easy to replicate by other researchers
- Check if findings are similar then the results are reliable

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10
Q

Weaknesses of Lab Experiments

A
  • Strong chance of demand characteristics
  • Setting is artificial
  • Lacks mundane realism
  • Lacks ecological validity
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11
Q

Strengths of Field Experiments

A

• Setting is real

  • More mundane realism
  • More ecological validity

• Cause and effect is easy to identify

• Less chance of demand characteristics
-PPs may not even be aware they are in a study

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12
Q

Weaknesses of field experiments

A

• Less control of EV

  • DV effect wouldn’t be caused by IV
  • Less valid

• Less control of sample
-Generalisability&Representativeness

• Difficult to replicate

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13
Q

Strengths of Natural Experiements

A

• High mundane realism
-High ecological validity

• Useful to use when it’s impossible/unethical to manipulate the IV/sample

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14
Q

Weaknesses of Natural Experiments

A

• Less control of EV

  • DV effect wouldn’t be caused by IV
  • Less valid
  • Difficult to replicate
  • Difficult to determine cause and effect
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15
Q

Strengths of Quasi-Experiments

A

• High mundane realism
-High ecological validity

• Useful to use when it’s impossible/unethical to manipulate the IV/sample

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16
Q

Weaknesses of Quasi-Experiments

A

• Less control of EV

  • DV effect wouldn’t be caused by IV
  • Less valid
  • Difficult to replicate
  • Difficult to determine cause and effect
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17
Q

What is an observation

A

Researcher watches/listens to PPs engaging in behaviour being studied

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18
Q

What is a Non-Participant Observation

A

Researcher is not directly involved with interactions of PPs

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19
Q

What is a Participant Observation

A

Researcher is directly involved with interactions of PPs

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20
Q

What is a Covert Observation

A

Psychologist goes undercover

Group is unaware they are being observed

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21
Q

What is an Overt Observation

A

Group knows about observation+psychologist researcher

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22
Q

What is a Natural Observation

A
  • Researcher observes PPs in their own environment

* No deliberate manipulation of IV

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23
Q

What is a Controlled Observation

A
  • Researcher observes PPs in controlled environment

* IV is directly manipulated

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24
Q

Strengths of Naturalistic Observation

A

• Pps usually unaware of being observed (covert)

  • no observer effects
  • no demand characteristics
  • higher validity

• High mundane realism / ecologically valid
-results can be generalised

• Useful when manipulating IV is difficult or unethical

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25
Q

Weaknesses of Naturalistic Observations

A

• No control for EV
-results rendered invalid

• Cause & effect not always clear
-lack of control

• Risk of Observer Bias

  • interpretations may be subjective, wrong
  • results may be unreliable
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26
Q

Strengths of Controlled Observations

A

• Cause & Effect clear
-identify IV causes by change in DV

• EV controlled
-results more valid

• Yield qualitative data
-increases validity

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27
Q

Weaknesses of Controlled Observations

A

• Low Mundane Realism / ecological validity
-restricts results, can’t be generalised

• Observer effects may occur

  • pps know (overt observation)
  • social desirability bias
  • data invalid

• Risk if Observer Bias

  • researchers personal views, opinions influence data recording
  • inaccurate
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28
Q

What is a Self Report Technique

A

Pps give info without researcher interference

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29
Q

What is an Interview

A

Researchers ask PPs questions face-to-face

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30
Q

What is a Questionnaire

A

PPs given written details of questions + instructions of how to record answers

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31
Q

What is a Structured Interview

A

• PPs all given same Qs in order

• Closed Qs
-therefore
• Quantitative data

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32
Q

What is an Unstructured Interview

A
  • Informal in-depth conversational exchange
  • Not planned, loose plan of themes to ask

• Open Qs
-therefore
• Qualitative Data

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33
Q

What is a Semi-Structured Interview

A
  • Mixture of structured + unstructured interview techniques
  • Mixture if closed + open Qs
  • Mixture if Quantitative + Qualitative data
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34
Q

Strengths of Interviews

A

A

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35
Q

Weaknesses of Interviews

A

S

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36
Q

What is a Closed Questionnaire

A

A

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37
Q

What is an Open Questionnaire

A

A

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38
Q

Strengths of Questionnaire

A

A

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39
Q

Weaknesses of Questionnaires

A

Ss

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40
Q

What is a Correlation

A
  • Technique used to analyse relationship of 2 Quantitative variables (co-variables)
  • Data usually obtained from non-experimental source (eg survey)
41
Q

Advantages of Correlation

A

• Allow strength of relationship to be measured precisely

• Allow things to be researched that can’t be manipulated experimentally (practical / ethical reasons)
-eg stress + cardiovascular disease

• Predictions can be made about one of co-variables based on other co-variable

  • due to previous correlations
  • eg conclude as stress increases, cholesterol increases
42
Q

Disadvantages of Correlation

A

• Correlational analysis cannot demonstrate Cause & Effect

• Correlation ≠ Causation
-third unrelated variable may be cause which influences both (usually population density)

• Correlations only measure linear relationships

  • Not Curvilinear Relationships
  • positive relationship up to certain point then negative (+ vice versa)
43
Q

Differences between Correlations and Experiments

A

A

44
Q

What is an Aim

A
  • Precise statement about purpose of study and what it intends to find out
  • Should include what is being studied (DV) and what it’s trying to achieve
  • Eg
45
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

• Precise, testable statement about expected outcome of study

46
Q

Whatre the two types of hypotheses

A
  • Null hypothesis - IV will have no effect on DV
  • Alternative hypothesis - IV will have effect on DV
  • Directional hypothesis - states direction of predicted difference between conditions
  • Non-Directional hypothesis - does NOT state direction of predicted differences between conditions
47
Q

Whats a pilot study

A
  • Small-scale investigation conducted before research
  • Identifies whether there needs to be modifications in study design
  • Help determine if full-scale study would be feasible / worthwhile
48
Q

What does target population mean

A
  • Group that researchers are actively studying

* Results would ideally be generalised to apply to this group

49
Q

What is random sampling

A
  • Every member of target population has same chance of being selected
  • Easiest method is drawing sample of names of target population out of hat
50
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

• Every nth person from a list is selected

51
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

• Classifies target population into categories

• Randomly choose sample consisting of PPs from each category
-same proportion as appeared in target population

52
Q

Whats is opportunity sampling

A

Selects PPs who are readily available + willing to take part

53
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A
  • People self-select to participate in a study.

* Usually research participation is advertised for people to take part

54
Q

What is experimental design

A
  • How PPs are assigned to different conditions

* Independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs

55
Q

What is independent groups

A

• Different PPs are used in each conditions
-Therefore independent

• Usually randomly allocated to balance PP variables

56
Q

Strengths of independent groups

A

• Order effects don’t occur
-different PPs each condition

  • Order effects is when sequence PPs take part in conditions influence behaviour
  • Eg PPs better w/ practice or bored/fatigued
  • Demand characteristics reduced, only one condition (less chance guess purpose of study)
  • Saves time because conditions can be done at same time
57
Q

Weaknesses of indepedent groups

A
  • More PPs needed

* Different results may be because PPs variables not IV

58
Q

What is repeated measures

A

Each PP tested in all conditions

59
Q

Strengths of repeated measures

A
  • No PP variables (same people all conditions)

* Half number PPs needed compared to independent groups design

60
Q

Weaknesses of repeated measures

A

• Order effects may affect results
-Avoided with counterbalancing

  • Half PPs do 1 condition first / other do other condition. Then reversed
  • doesn’t eliminate order effects, but controls impact (+allows order effects to be distributed evenly across both conditions)

• Demand characteristics more likely to occur

• Takes more time
-especially if time gap between conditions is required

61
Q

What is matched pairs

A

• Different PPs used in all conditions

• PPs in groups are matched on characteristics important for study (age, gender, education)
-identical twins often used

62
Q

Strengths of matched pairs

A
  • Less risk of order effects
  • Less risk of demand characteristics
  • Participant variables unlikely, groups are closely matched
63
Q

Weaknesses of matched pairs

A

• Twice PPs required compared to repeated measures

• Matching PPs process is v difficult.
-may still have different motivation levels + fatigue

• Matching PPs process is v time consuming

64
Q

What are pp variables

A

• Characteristics of PPs which may affect DV
-Eg IQ, age, gender, personality

• Random allocation of PPs to conditions w/ independent groups ensure no bias

65
Q

What are environmental variables

A

• Characteristics of environment that may affect DV
-Eg temperature, time of day, lighting, noise

• Standardisation used to counteract this
-making sure conditions, materials, instructions same for all PPs

66
Q

What are investigator effects

A

• Person collecting data has knowledge of research aim which affects data

  • Eg observer bias

• Double blind technique used to overcome
-neither PPs nor investigator know hypothesis or condition PP is in

• Standardised scripts written to ensure investigator acts in similar way all PPs

67
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

• PPs guess study’s purpose + expected behaviour

-Eg observer effects + interviewer effects

  • PPs try to give researcher desired results
  • Or PPs try to give researcher opposite of desired results (the screw-you-effect)
  • Or PPs acting unnaturally out of nervousness or social desirability bias
68
Q

What are operationalised behavioural categories

A
  • Specific observable behaviours recorded during observation
  • Behavioural categories represent more general construct under investigation
  • Behavioural categories;
  • allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings
  • provide clear focus for researcher
  • enable proposal of testable hypothesis
  • allow more objective/scientific data recording
  • provide data easier to quantify/analyse
  • should result in greater reliability
69
Q

What is observer bias

A
  • Occurs when observer knows aims of study or hypotheses then influences observations
  • Overcome with inter-observer reliability
  • each observer agrees on interpretation of behavioural categories beforehand
  • observes PPs independently
  • recordings correlated

• Overcome with intra-observer reliability

-observation is video recorded so watched several times

70
Q

What is event + time sampling

A

• Event sampling - recording every time certain behaviour (/event) occurs in target individual(s)
-Eg every time someone smiles

• Time sampling - recording behaviours within given time frames
-Eg every 30 seconds

71
Q

How do you write good questions

A

• Clarity - no ambiguity for PPs. Avoid double negatives, double-barrelled Qs

• Bias - no leading Qs. No social desirability bias.
-Respondents may prefer to give answers that make them seem better (especially if Qs are socially sensitive)

• Analysis - Qs easy to analyse. Closed Qs easy to analyse compared w/ open.
-Though PPs may be forced to select answers that aren’t detailed enough

72
Q

How do you write good questionnaires

A
  • Filler questions - Adding irrelevant Qs distracts PP from Mai purpose, reduces demand characteristics risk
  • Sequence of questions - start w/ easy Qs and save so anxiety / defensive inducing Qs for later
  • Sampling technique - often use stratified sampling so no bias
  • Pilot study - Qs tested on small group, refined later on
73
Q

How do you record interviews

A

• Could take written notes throughout interview
-likely to interfere w/ listening skills

  • If researcher doesn’t write smth PP may feel they said smth useless
  • Could also be recorded audio or video
74
Q

What are the effects of the interviewer

A

• Strength of interview compared to questionnaire is presence of interviewer who is interested in PP answer may increase amount of info provided

• Interviewers need to be aware of non-verbal communication (don’t sit with arms crossed, don’t frown)
+ listening skills (don’t interrupt)

75
Q

What is informed consent

A

• PPs sign consent form
-explains general purpose of study

• No pressure to consent and withdraw at any time

• Investigators should inform PPs of objectives of investigation
-in some cases they can’t because demand characteristics

76
Q

What is protection from harm

A
  • Investigators have responsibility to protect PPs from physics & psychological harm
  • Risk of harm should be same as normal life and study should be stopped if harm is suspected
  • PP should leave research in same condition they entered it
77
Q

What is right to withdraw

A

• At start of research all PPs must be aware they can leave at any time
-regardless of payment or inducement is offered

  • Difficult to implement during covert observations
  • If PPs appear distressed during study they should be reminded of right to withdraw
78
Q

What is confidentiality

A
  • PPs data not disclosed to anyone unless agreed in advance
  • Numbers or letters used instead of names if research is published
  • Confidentiality means data can be traced back to a name
  • Anonymity means it cannot since PPs never provided their name
79
Q

What is avoiding deception

A
  • Withholding of info/misleading of PP is unacceptable if PP likely to show unease once found out about deception
  • Intentional deception of PPs over purpose and general nature of investigation should be avoided wherever possible (medical/scientific justification)
  • If unavoidable then ethics committee must approve. Cost-benefit analysis determine if research should be carried out
  • Id deception used then real purpose of study/what occurred in other conditions must be explained after study (also told why deception was necessary)
80
Q

What is debriefing

A
  • PPs told aim of study and info about other conditions after study
  • Researcher check on PP’s welfare and remind of right to withdraw and right to confidentiality
  • Does not provide justification for unethical aspects of research
81
Q

What is the process of peer review

A

• Research proposal submitted to panel of psychologists for peer review
-panel decides if research is worth funding

  • Published in scientific journal for peer review again after research conducted + research report written
  • Reviewers can
  • accept manuscript
  • accept with revisions
  • suggest author makes revisions & re-submit
  • reject without possibility of re-submission
82
Q

What happens during peer review

A
  • Psychologists conduct independent scrutiny of research report before deciding if should be published
  • Psychologists work in similar field to research investigating
  • Research considered in terms of
  • validity
  • significance and originality
  • appropriateness of methodology
  • experimental design

• Purpose is

  • ensure quality + relevance of research
  • ensure accuracy of findings
  • evaluate proposed designs for research funding

• Prevents

  • dissemination of irrelevant findings
  • unwarranted claims
  • unacceptable interpretations
  • personal views
  • deliberate fraud
83
Q

Strengths of peer review

A

• Independent scrutiny increases probability of errors being identified
-authors are less objective about own work

  • Double blind procedure used so researcher is kept anonymous + research who does peer review isn’t known
  • Involves specialist psychologist in field judging work, have exceptional knowledge and expertise to make best judgement
  • Not always possible to find appropriate expert
  • Possible that poor research may be positively peer reviewed because reviewer didn’t understand it
84
Q

Weaknesses of peer review

A

• Journals prefer positive results since editors want to increase standing of journal

  • therefore published work biased
  • therefore misperception of facts
  • eg research finding gender differences more likely published than no differences in gender
  • leads to misperception men and women are Very different

• Unfair process whereby some reviewers have connections with certain uni’s
-therefore favouritism or bias towards researchers dependent on institution

85
Q

How can research on social influence improve economy

A
  • Helps understand how behaviour and attitudes can be changed
  • Used to encourage people to engage in more healthy behaviours (eating healthily)
  • Results in healthier people therefore reduced pressure on NHS resources and improved productivity (less time off work sick)
86
Q

How can research on memory improve economy

A
  • Cognitive interview improved amount of accurate information collected from eyewitnesses
  • Implication is amount of money spent on wrongful arrests/imprisonments & wasted police time is vastly reduced
87
Q

How can research on attachment improve economy

A
  • Research disputing Bowlby’s monotropic theory allows both parents to equally provide emotional support for children
  • Households have more flexible working arrangements
  • Examples include mothers earn more at work and fathers stay at home, couples share child care evenly
  • Modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income and contribute more effectively to the economy
88
Q

How can research on mental health improve economy

A

• Drug therapies research has been essential in reducing cost of mental illness to economy + returning people to work

• Findings lead to improvements in psych health/treatment programmes
-People manage health better, less time off work

• Findings lead to better ways of managing people prone to mental health issues whilst at work
-improving productivity

  • May encourage investment from overseas companies
  • Providing treatments but be financial burden.
  • New therapies > old therapies
  • New therapies £ > old therapies £
89
Q

What is quantitative data

A

• Involves numbers and can be measured objectively.
-quantifiable

• Examples include

  • dependent variable
  • closed questions in questionnaires
  • structured interviews
  • tally of no. times behavioural category seen in observation
90
Q

What is qualitative data

A

• Involves words

  • data based on subjectve interpretation of language
  • only quantifiable if data categorised + frequency counted

• Examples include

  • Open questions in questionnaires
  • Transcript from unstructured interview
  • Researchers describing what they see in an observation

• Challenging to analyse because it relies on interpretation by the researcher
-prone to subjectiveness, bias, innacuracies

• Difficult to categorise into sensible number of answer types

91
Q

What is primary data

A

Data collected directly by researcher for purpose of investigation

92
Q

What is secondary data

A

• Information collected for a purpose other than current use

• Could be for different study. Could be different researcher
- Could use government statistics

• Substantial variation in quality + accuracy

93
Q

What is a meta-analysis

A
  • Combining results from different studies on specific topic for overall view
  • Results generalised across larger populations, data viewed with more confidence
  • Prone to publication bias, researcher leaves out studies with negative or non-significant results
94
Q

What is a table

A

Table

95
Q

What is a scattergram

A

Graph

96
Q

What is a bar chart

A

Bars

97
Q

What is a distribution curve

A

Curvy

98
Q

What is desceiptive statistics

A

Mean median and mode

Psychology AQA A Level (3 decks)

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