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psychology - paper 2 > research methods > Flashcards

research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what is an aim?

A

a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate - purpose of the study

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2
Q

what is a hypothesis? what is a directional and non-directional hypothesis?

A
  • statement made at start of a study and clearly describes relationship between variables as stated by a theory
  • needs to make it easy to tell what IV and DV are
  • directional - researcher makes clear sort of difference anticipated between 2 conditions or two groups of people - include words like more/less, higher/lower, faster/slower
  • non-directional - simply states difference between conditions/groups
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3
Q

what are independent and dependent variables? how should other variables potentially affecting the DV be treated? why?

A
  • in experiment - researcher manipulates independent variable + records/measures effect of change on dependent variable
  • all other variables that might potentially affect DV should remain constant in a properly run experiment
  • so researcher can be confident any change in DV due to IV alone
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4
Q

why should we check levels of IV? how would we?

A
  • in terms of energy drink. if simply gave ptps speedup, how would we know how talkative they were?
  • in order to test need different experimental conditions - need a comparison
  • could either: compare ptps talkativeness before + after drinking
  • compare two groups: those who drink energy drink + those who drink water
  • the two levels of IV - control condition (no energy drink/drink of water) and experimental condition (energy drink)
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5
Q

how do you operationalise variables in a hypothesis?

A
  • make the variables measurables

- ex. after drinking 300ml of energy drink, ptps say more words in next 5 mins than ptps who drink 300ml water

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6
Q

what are extraneous variables? what are examples? what are their effects?

A
  • independent variable is manipulated to see how it affects the DV
  • only thing that should affect DV is IV
  • any other variables that might potentially interfere with IV should be controlled/removed
  • additional unwanted variables called EV
  • age of ptps
  • lighting in lab
  • ‘nuisance variables’ do not confound findings - may just make it harder to detect result
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7
Q

what are confounding variables?

A
  • do change systematically with IV

- can’t tell if any change in DV due to IV or confounding variable (almost like a second unintended IV)

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8
Q

what are demand characteristics?

A
  • any cue from researcher/from research situation - may be interpreted by ptps as revealing purpose of investigation
  • may lead ptp changing behaviour within research situation
  • may act in a way they think is expected + overperform (please-U effect) or opposite to sabotage results (screw-U effect)
  • unnatural ptp behaviour - extraneous variable may affect DV
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9
Q

what are investigator effects?

A
  • any effect of investigator’s behaviour (conscious/unconscious) on research outcome (DV)
  • can include everything from design of study to selection of + interaction with ptps during research process
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10
Q

what is randomisation?

A
  • minimise effect of extraneous/conf variables on outcome
  • use of chance methods to reduce researcher’s unconcscious bias when designing investigation
  • controls investigator effects
  • in exp where ptps involved in number of conds - order of conds should be randomly determined
  • if all ptps were to take part in all conds - order of completion would need to be randomised for each ptp
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11
Q

what is standardisation?

A
  • all ptps should be subject to same environment, info + experience
  • to ensure all procedures standardised - list of exactly what will be done in the study
  • standardised instructuctions that are read to each ptp
  • such standardisation means non-standardised changes in procedure do not act as extraneous variables
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12
Q

what is an experimental design?

A

different ways in which ptp’s can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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13
Q

what are the different experimental designs?

A
  • independent groups design
  • repeated measures
  • matched pairs
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14
Q

what is an independent groups design?

A
  • when two seperate groups of ptp’s experience two different conditions of the experiment
  • if there are two levels of the IV - means all ptps experience one level of IV only
  • performance of two groups then compared
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15
Q

what is an example of an independent group?

A
  • one group of ptp drinking energy drink (condition A - experimental condition)
  • a different group (group2) drinking water (condition B - control condition)
  • performance compared : mean number of words spoken in the 5 min period after drinking for each group/condition
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16
Q

what is a repeated measures design? use the energy drink example

A
  • all ptp’s experience both conditions of experiment
  • ex. each ptp would first experience condition A (energy drink condition)
  • ptp would then later be tested again in condition B (glass of water condition, control condition)
  • following this, the two mean scores from both conditions would be compared to see if there was a difference
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17
Q

what is a matched pairs design?

A
  • ptp’s paired together on a variable/variables relevant to experiment
  • ex. memory study - might be matched on IQ - good indicator on ability to recall
  • two ptps with first + second highest IQ paired together + the one with 3rd and 4th highest and so on
  • then one ptp from each pair allocated to a different condition of the experiment
  • attempt to control for the confounding variable + ptp variables
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18
Q

how would matched pairs be used in the energy drink example?

A
  • observe ptp’s interacting in a room before ex begins + select 2 which most chattiest - one pair placed in condition A + other condition B and so on
  • then ex will run in same way as indep group design
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19
Q

what is an issue with independent groups when it comes to ptp variables? how can it be dealt with. what is an issue of it compared to RMD?

A
  • ptp’s who occupy the different groups not the same in terms of ptp variables
  • if researcher finds a mean difference between groups on dependent variable - may be more to do with ptp variables than effects of IV
  • may act as confounding variable - reducing validity
  • to deal with it they use random allocation
  • less economical than repeated measures - each ptp contributes a single result only - twice as many ptp needed to produce equivalent data to that collected in a repeated measures design - increases time + money spent on recruiting ptp
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20
Q

what are strengths of independent groups? compared to RMD?

A
  • order effects not a problem - whereas problem for repeated measures design
  • ptp’s less likely to guess aims
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21
Q

what are the issues of the RMD? explain effects of order using energy drink example. how else can order effects happen? how can an order effect be a confounding variable?

A
  • each ptp has to do at least two tasks + order of these tasks may be significant (order effects)
  • energy drink: having energy drink first may have a continuing effect when ptp drinks water afterwards
  • could arise because repeating two tasks could create boredom/fatigue - might cause deterioration in performance on second task - order matters
  • alternatively - ptps performance may improve through effects of practice - esp on a skill-based task - in this case ptps will perform better on second task - order effect confounding variable
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22
Q

how is demand characteristics a problem for RMD?

A
  • more likely ptp will work out aim of the study when experience all conditions of experiment
  • hence why DC tend to be more of a feature of RMD than indep groups
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23
Q

what is a strength of RMD?

A
  • ptp variables controlled - therefore higher validity

- fewer ptp needed (less time recruiting)

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24
Q

what are strengths of matched pairs?

A

ptp only take part in single condition - order effects less of a problem

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25
Q

what are disadvantages of matched pairs?

A
  • although some attempts to reduce ptp variables - ptp can never be matched exactly - even when identical twins used - will be important differences between them may affect DV
  • matching may be time-consuming + expensive - particularly if pre-test required - less economical than other designs
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26
Q

what are the different types of experiments?

A
  • laboratory experiments
  • field experiments
  • natural experiments
  • quasi-experiments
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27
Q

what is a laboratory experiment?

A
  • conducted in highly controlled environments

- not always a lab

28
Q

what are the strengths of a lab experiment?

A
  • high control over confoundings + extraneous variables
  • ensure effects on DV result of manipulation of IV - more certain about demonstrating cause + effect (high internal validity)
  • replication more possible than in other types of ex because of high level of control - ensures new extraneous variables not introduced when repeating an experiment
  • replication vital to check results of study - whether findings valid + not just one-off
29
Q

what are the limitations of a lab study?

A
  • may lack generlisability - lab environment may be rather artificial + not like everyday life
  • ptp’s behaviour may be different + cannot be generalised beyond research setting (low external validity)
  • ptps usually aware being tested in lab ex (DC)
  • tasks may not represent every day experience (low mundane realism)
30
Q

what is a field experiment?

A
  • IV manipulated in a natural - more everyday setting
  • researcher goes to ptp’s usual environment rather than going to a researcher’s lab
  • researcher manipulates the IV + records the effect on the DV
31
Q

what are the strengths of a filed experiment?

A
  • higher mundane realism than lab experiments - environment more natural - may produce behaviour which is more valid + authentic
  • especially case as ptps may be unaware they are being studies (high external validity)
32
Q

what are the limitations of a field experiment?

A
  • loss of control over CVs and EVs - means cause + effect between IV and DV in field studies may be much more difficult to establish + precise replication often not possible
  • ethical issues - ptp unaware they are being studied - cannot give consent to being in studies + such research constitute to invasion of privacy
33
Q

what are natural experiments?

A
  • takes advantage of pre-existing IV in environment
  • lab/field experiment insofar as the researcher measures effect of IV/DV - researcher no control over IV + cannot change - someone/something else causes IV to vary
    (ex before/after natural disaster)
  • iv that is natural not necessarily setting - may even be tested in lab
  • DV may also be naturally occurring/ devised by experimenter + then measures in field/lab
34
Q

what are the strengths of a natural experiment?

A
  • provide opportunity for research may not otherwise be undertaken for practical/ethical reasons
  • high external validity - involve study of realworld problems as they happen . ex effects of natural disaster on stress levels
35
Q

what are the limitations of a natural experiement?

A
  • naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely - reducing opportunities for research
  • ptps maynot be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (when there is an IGD) - may mean less sure whether IV affected DV
  • such research may be conducted in a lab - lack realism + DC
36
Q

what is a quasi-experiment/

A
  • researcher takes advantage of a pre-existing IV within a person
  • does not manipulate IV
  • DV may be naturally occurring/ devised by experimenter + measured in field/lab
37
Q

what are the strengths of a quasi-experiment?

A
  • often carried out under controlled conditions - share from strengths of a lab ex (replication)
38
Q

what are limitations of a quasi-experiment?

A
  • like natural experiments - cannot randomly allocate ptp to conditions - therefore may be CVs
  • both quasi + natural - IV not deliberately changed by researcher - cannot claim IV caused any observed change
39
Q

what is a population?

A
  • large group of individuals that particular researcher interested in studying
  • often called target population - subset of general pop
40
Q

what is a sample?

A
  • practical + economic reasons - usually not possible to include all members of target pop - so researcher selects smaller group - sample
  • ideally representative - so generalisation of findings become possible
  • however difficult to represent pop due to diversity - so majority - some degree of bias
41
Q

what are the sampling techniques which aim to produce a representative sample?

A
  • random sample
  • systematic sample
  • stratified sample
  • opportunity sample
  • volunteer sample
42
Q

what is a random sample?

A
  • sophisticated form of sampling - all members of target pop - equal chance of being selected
  • first step is to obtain complete list of all members of target pop - second all names on list assigned number
  • finally - actual sample selected through use of some lottery method
43
Q

what is a systematic sample?

A
  • when ever nth member of the target pop is selected - ex every 3rd house on a street
  • sampling frame produced - list of people in target pop organised into, for instance, alphabetical order
  • sampling system nominated (every 3rf, 6th etc person)
  • may begin from a randomly determined start to reduce bias
  • researcher then works through sampling frame until sample complete
44
Q

what is a stratified example?

A
  • sophisticated form of sampling in which composition of sample reflects proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within target pop/wider pop
  • researcher first identifies different strata that make up the pop
  • proportions needed for sample to be representative worked out
  • finally ptps that make up each stratum selected using random sampling
45
Q

what is an opportunity sample?

A
  • given that representative samples of target pops difficult to obtain
  • many researchers simply select anyone who happens to be willing + available
  • ask whoever is around at the time of their study
  • ex. in street
46
Q

what is a volunteer sample?

A
  • involves ptp selecting themselves to be part of sample (also referred to as self-reflection)
  • researcher may place advert in newspaper
47
Q

what are advantages of a random sample?

A
  • potentially unbiased - confounding/extraneous variables should be equally divided between different groups - enhancing internal validity
48
Q

what are the disadvantages of a random sample?

A
  • difficult + time-consuming to conduct - complete list of target pop may be difficult to obtain
  • may end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative
  • selected ptps may refuse to take part (end up with something more like a volunteer sample
49
Q

what are the disadvantages of a systematic sample?

A
  • objective
  • once system for selection established - researcher no influence over who is chosen
  • method time-consuming - and in the end ptp may refuse to take part resulting in a volunteer sample
50
Q

what are the advantages of a stratified sample?

A
  • produces a representative sample - designed to accurately reflect composition of population - generalisation of findings possible
51
Q

what are the disadvantages of a stratified sample?

A
  • not perfect
  • identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different - complete representation of target pop not possible
52
Q

what are the advantages of an opportunity sample?

A
  • convenient - much less costly in terms of time + money compared to ex. random
  • as list of target pop not required + no need to divide pop into different strata as there is in stratified sampling
53
Q

what are the disadvantages of an opportunity sample?

A
  • suffers from two forms of bias
  • sample unrepresentative of target pop - drawn from a very specific area - findings cant be generalised to the target population
  • researcher has complete control over selection of ptps - researcher bias may be possible
54
Q

what are the advantages of a volunteer example?

A
  • collecting volunteer sample easy
  • minimal input from researcher - less time-consuming than other forms of sampling
  • ends up with ptps who are more engaged than someone stopped on the street
55
Q

what are the disadvantages of a volunteer sample?

A
  • volunteer bias
  • asking volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person - curios + more likely to try to please researcher (might affect how far findings can be generalised)
56
Q

what are ethical problems that face ptps and and researchers face?

A
  • informed consent
  • deception
  • protection from harm
  • privacy + confidentiality
57
Q

what is informed consent?

A
  • prospective ptps in studies should know what they are getting into
  • informed consent making ptps aware of aims of research, procedures + their rights (including right to withdraw) + what data will be used for
  • ptps then make informed judgement whether or not to take part without being coerced/feeling obliged
  • but asking for informed consent may make study meaningless - ptps behaviour not ‘natural’ - know aims of study
58
Q

what is deception?

A
  • deliberately miselading + withholding info from ptp
  • ptp’s who have not received adequate info when agreed to take part - cannot be said to give informed consent
  • occasions when can be justified - if dont cause distress
59
Q

what is protection from harm?

A
  • must be protected from physical + psychological harm
  • same mental state they joined the study with
  • important feature of this is ptp being reminded of the fact they have right to withdraw from investigation at any point
60
Q

what is privacy and confidentiality?

A
  • right to control info about themselves
  • confidentiality - refers to our right - to have any personal data protected
  • right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place - institutions/geographical locations not named
61
Q

what is the bps code of conduct?

A
  • ethical guidelines - have professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research - may lose their job
  • guidelines implemented by ethics committee in research institutions who often use a cost-benefit approach to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable
62
Q

how do researchers deal with informed consent?

A
  • ptp should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant info that might affect their decision to participate
  • assuming ptp agees - this is then signed
  • for investigations involving under 16 - parental consent
63
Q

how should researchers deal with deception + protection from harm?

A
  • at end ptp should be given full debrief - made aware of true aims of investigation + any details not supplied during study
  • also told what data will be used for + must be given the right to withdraw during study + right to withhold data
  • must be reassured their behaviour was typical during investigation - if ever subject to anything researcher should provide any counselling
64
Q

how should researchers deal with confidentiality?

A

a - if personal details held - must be protected
- more usual to maintain anonymity - usually refer to ptp as initials/numbers

  • standard practice - during briefing+debriefing - ptp reminded data will be protected throughout process + told data will not be shared to other researchers
65
Q

what are the different types of consent?

A
  • presumptive - rather ptp themselves - given by a similar group of people
  • prior general consent - ptp gives permission to take part in a number of different studies - including one that will inlove deception - consenting to be deceive
  • retrospective consent - ptp asked for their consent after taking part - may have been deceived/ not been aware of participation

psychology - paper 2 (2 decks)

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