research methods Flashcards

Question

situational confounding variables

Answer 1

features of the experimental situation

Answer 2

are do to with differences between participants

Answer 3

researcher bias, demand characteristics, order effect.

Answer 4

where a researcher acts in a way to support their prediction. this can be particular problem when observing events that can be interpreted in more than one way.

Answer 5

each person has an equal chance of being put into either condition

Answer 6

the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same, allows for replication to determine reliability.

Answer 7

presenting any stimuli in an experiment in a “random manner” to avoid it having an effect on the DV, prevents order effects and situational extraneous variables.

Answer 8

participants don’t know which condition of a study they are in, prevents demand characteristics.

Answer 9

neither participants nor investigators know which condition the participants are in, prevents researcher bias.

Answer 10

the group of people the researcher wants to study.

Answer 11

a small group of people who represents the target population and who is studied.

Answer 12

where every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen. how: 1. need a sampling frame, a complete list of all members of the target population is obtained. 2.all the names are assigned a number. 3.sample is selected randomly.

Answer 13

recruiting anyone who happens to be available at the time of your study. how: •researcher goes somewhere they are likely to find their target population and ask people to take part.

Answer 14

when people actively volunteer to be in a study by responding to a request which has been advertised by the researcher. how: p’s self select by responding to an advert

Answer 15

involves selecting names from the sampling frame at regular intervals. how: 1. list of people in the target population organised. 2. a sampling system is nominated. 3. researcher then works through the sampling frame until the samples complete.

Answer 16

participants are selected from different subgroups in the target population in proportion to the subgroups frequency in the population.

Answer 17

refers to the extent to which something is consistent.

Answer 18

measures test consistency; the reliability of a test measured over time.

Answer 19

the degree of agreement among raters.

Answer 20

refers to the extent to which something is measuring what it is claiming to measure.

Answer 21

refers to the extent the results can be generalised to other settings.

Answer 22

describes how well the sample can be generalised to a POPULATION as a whole.

Answer 23

refers to whether the findings are still valid TODAY.

Answer 24

•can control extraneous variables increasing internal validity. •standardised procedure so replication can be done to see if the findings are reliable.

Answer 25

•low ecological validity. •lack mundane realism. •p’s knowing they are being tested could cause demand characteristics.

Answer 26

•environment is natural so higher ecological validity. •p’s don’t know they are being tested reducing demand characteristics.

Answer 27

•less control of extraneous variables decreasing internal validity. •ethical issues if p’s are unaware they are in an experiment.

Answer 28

•provides opportunities that might not otherwise be available. •high ecological validity as it’s a real-life event.

Answer 29

•difficult to establish the cause. •event may happen very quickly. •p’s may not be randomly allocated.

Answer 30

•carried out in often controlled conditions

Answer 31

•p’s cannot be randomly allocated resulting in participant confounding variables.

Answer 32

• reduced demand characteristics. •minimises order effects. eg no practise/fatigued

Answer 33

•participant extraneous variables •less economical/ time consuming as you need more p’s

Answer 34

•participant extraneous variables are controlled for •less p’s needed so less time consuming/expensive

Answer 35

•order effects •demand characteristics

Answer 36

•order effects and demand characteristics •participant extraneous variables are reduced

Answer 37

•the p’s cannot be truly matched. •time consuming and expensive.

Answer 38

•the p’s cannot be truly matched. •time consuming and expensive.

Answer 39

lack of researcher bias

Answer 40

•impractical (time and effort). •not completely representative.

Answer 41

•simple and easy to conduct. •field/natural experiments must use those available.

Answer 42

•unrepresentative. •researcher bias.

Answer 43

•most convenient. •reach a wider audience.

Answer 44

•biased sample eg particular interest, altruistic

Answer 45

•no researcher bias. •simple (with sampling frame).

Answer 46

•not completely random so not representative.

Answer 47

•most representative.

Answer 48

•knowledge of population characteristics required. •time consuming.

Answer 49

refers to the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring.

Answer 50

asks whether a measure is in agreement with a pre-existing measure that is validated to test for the same concept.

Answer 51

the degree to which a test accuracy predicts a criterion that will occur in the future.

Answer 52

where you apply a superficial and subjective assessment of whether or not your study or test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Answer 53

involves the detailed study of a single individual or a small group of people

Answer 54

qualitative

Answer 55

uses a mixture of research methods: interviews,observations,questionnaires or psychological testing to asses what they are capable of

Answer 56

using more than one method to check the validity of the findings

Answer 57

one single case study can refute a whole theory

Answer 58

they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time

Answer 59

allows to look at changes over time

Answer 60

ps may drop out, which can lead to a small sample size (attrition rate)

Answer 61

✓ They offer high levels of validity as they go into depth and give a rich insight. ✓ They allow multiple methods to be used (triangulation) = increasing validity. ✓ They allow researchers to study events or complex psychological areas they could not practically or ethically manipulate. ✓ Efficient as it only takes one case study to refute a theory.

Answer 62

-Researcher bias: researchers can become too involved and lose their objectivity - misinterpreting or influencing outcomes. -Lack of control: there are many confounding variables that can affect the outcome. -As they are unique they can be difficult to replicate and therefore lack scientific rigour.

Answer 63

A researcher will simply observe behaviour of a sample and look for patterns. Like all non-experimental methods, in an observation we cannot draw cause and effect relationships.

Answer 64

Observations are used in psychological research in one of two ways, a method or a technique.

Answer 65

a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

Answer 66

To make observational data more objective and unbiased, there should be at least two observers. They should then compare their data at the end. The correlation should be as close to 1.0 (0.8 minimum) to have good reliability.

Answer 67

observation of behaviour in its natural setting. The researcher makes no attempt to influence the behaviour of those being observed. It is often done where it would be unethical to carry out a lab experiment.

Answer 68

⇒ High levels of ecological validity as carried out in a natural setting ⇒ P’s are less likely to be affected by demand characteristics as they are unaware they are being studied

Answer 69

⇒ Little control over EVs - hard to establish causality ⇒ Replication is often not possible - cannot check reliability of the findings

Answer 70

This refers to an observation-taking place in a controlled setting, usually behind a one way mirror so they cannot be seen.

Answer 71

⇒ There is less risk of extraneous variables effecting the behaviour as it is in a controlled environment

Answer 72

⇒ The setting is artifical and therefore may lack ecological validity

Answer 73

The observer creates a behaviour checklist in order to code the behaviour they are observing. They can use time or event sampling.

Answer 74

researchers will use a standardised behaviour checklist to record the frequency of those behaviours. The target behaviour is split up into a set of behavioural categories

Answer 75

⇒ Be observable (record explicit actions) ⇒ Have no need for inferences to be made ⇒ Cover all possible components behaviours ⇒ Be mutually exclusive/ not overlap (not having to mark two categories at the same time)

Answer 76

A pilot study allows you to practise using the behaviour checklist/ observation schedule.

Answer 77

counting each time a particular behaviour is observed.

Answer 78

Useful when the target behaviour or event happens infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used.

Answer 79

if the situation is too busy and there is lots of the target behaviour occuring the researcher could not record it all

Answer 80

recording behaviour at timed intervals

Answer 81

The observer has time to record what they have seen

Answer 82

Some behaviours will be missed outside the intervals - observations may not be representative.

Answer 83

⇒ The behavioural checklist (coding system) allows objective quantifiable data to be collected which can be statistically analysed ⇒ Allows for more than one observer (due to checklist) which can increase the reliability (inter-observer reliability)

Answer 84

⇒ The pre-existing behavioural categories can be restrictive and does not always explain why the behaviour is happening

Answer 85

The observer note down all the behaviours they can see in a qualitative form over a period of time. No behavioural checklist is used.

Answer 86

⇒ They can generate in-depth, rich qualitative data that can help explain why the behaviour has occurred ⇒ Researchers are not limited by prior theoretically expectations

Answer 87

⇒ The observer can get drawn to eye catching behaviours that may not be representative of all behaviours occurring ⇒ More subjective and less comparable across researchers

Answer 88

Participants are aware that their behaviour is being studied, the observer is obvious.

Answer 89

⇒ It will better fulfil ethical guidelines (compared to covert)

Answer 90

⇒ Participants know they are being observed and therefore they may change their behaviour (participant reactivity)

Answer 91

Participants are unaware that their behaviour is being studied – the observed is covered.

Answer 92

⇒ P’s do not know they are being observed and therefore their behaviour is more likely to be natural (higher validity)

Answer 93

⇒ It can break many ethical guidelines as deception is used it may cause the p’s some psychological harm

Answer 94

The observer becomes involved in the participant group and may not be known to other p’s.

Answer 95

⇒ Being part of the group can allow the researcher to get a deep understanding of the behaviours of the group (increasing validity).

Answer 96

⇒ The presence of the researcher might influence the behaviour of the group. ⇒ The researcher may lose objectivity as they are part of the group.

Answer 97

The observer is separate from the participant group that are being observed.

Answer 98

⇒ Researchers observations are likely to be more objective as they are not influenced by the group

Answer 99

⇒ It is harder to produce qualitative data to understand the reasons for the behaviour

Answer 100

methods of gathering data where participants provide information about themselves eg thoughts, feelings or opinions can be done in written or oral form: questionaires, interviews

Answer 101

tests that have been assessed for validity and reliability

Answer 102

⇒ It allows ppts to describe their own experiences which provides rich (qualitative) data about complex human behaviour ⇒ It can help explain the reasons behind behaviour (answers the why) ⇒ It can be an easy way to gather a large amount of data and therefore increase generalisability ⇒ You can ask people hypothetically what they would do without having to set up an experiment and observe behaviour

Answer 103

⇒ Ppts may try to come across in most socially acceptable way (social desirability bias) which can lead to giving untruthful responses and lowering the validity of the results ⇒ It is only useful if the ppt is willing to disclose the information ⇒ Self report relies on ppts to have the introspective ability to understanding their own thoughts and feelings ⇒ Acquiescence bias is often present - people tend to agree with statements ⇒ Ppts may misinterpret the questions (subjective)

Answer 104

Questionnaires are a written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to. They can be administered in person, by post, online or to a group of participants simultaneously (in an experiment).

Answer 105

Questions should progress logically from the least sensitive to the most sensitive and from the more general to the more specific. The researcher should ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions.

Answer 106

is when there are only a certain amount of choices available to answer. Closed questions give quantitative data and are easier to analyse.

Answer 107

produce qualitative data as they allow participants to give a full, detailed answer and there is no restriction on what the participants can say. Open questions could lead to ideas for further investigation. Respondents can find open questions less frustrating than forced choice

Answer 108

- These are a set of written or recorded instructions that are given to the participant to ensure that all ppts receive them in the same way. - It is used as a control to standardise the procedure to increase the reliability and validity of the research.

Answer 109

- Questions put into a questionnaire or interview to disguise the aim of the study. - The purpose is to reduce demand characteristics.

Answer 110

⇒ Social desirability bias is reduced as no interviewer is present and questionnaires are often anonymous ⇒ A large amount of data can be collated very quickly which can increase the representativeness and generalisability ⇒ Data can be analysed easier than interviews (if mostly quantitative)

Answer 111

⇒ The options given may not reflect the p’s opinion and they may b forced into answering something which does not fit - lowering validity of the findings ⇒ The quantitative data produces less rich data than interviews

Answer 112

are self-report techniques that involve an experimenter asking participants questions (generally on a one-to-one basis) and recording their responses.

Answer 113

has predetermined questions. It is essentially a questionnaire that is deliver face-to-face (or over the phone).

Answer 114

has less structure. They may start with some predetermined questions and then new questions may develop during the interview depending on the answers given.

Answer 115

is a mix of structured and unstructured and is often the most successful approach.

Answer 116

Most interviews involve an interview schedule, which is the list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover. This should be standardised for each participant to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias.

Answer 117

Any audio recordings must be turned into written data which is called an interview transcript. This must protect anonymity.

Answer 118

The interviewer should conduct the interview in a quiet room, away from other people, as this will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up.

Answer 119

⇒ Standardised question means it can be replicated ⇒ Reduces differences between interviewers (consistency = higher reliability) ⇒ Quick to conduct

Answer 120

⇒ Interviewers cannot deviate from the topic or elaborate points ⇒ Mainly produces quantitative data which lacks insight

Answer 121

⇒ More flexibility allows for the collection of rich data which offers a deeper insight and for the interviewer to follow up, explore more or seek clarification

Answer 122

⇒ Difficult to analyse as they produce lots of qualitative data. The researcher should demonstrate reflexivity. ⇒ Interviewees may not be truthful due to social desirability bias which lowers the validity of the findings

Answer 123

investigate whether there is a relationship or association between two variables (co-variables).

Answer 124

With experiments the researcher controls or manipulates the IV to measure the effect on the DV and therefore causality can be established. In correlational research there is no manipulation of one variable and thereofroe causaloty cannot be established. There may be third intervening variables and we cannot establish which direction the relationship is.

Answer 125

When writing a hypothesis for correlational research you are stating whether there is going to be a relationship or association between x and y. Null = there will be no correlation Directional = state whether it is positive or negative Non-directional = there will be a relationship / association

Answer 126

● Secondary data e.g. population growth, people in employment ● Observational data e.g. the number of times someone displays a behaviour ● Questionnaires e.g. a standardised measure ● Brain scanning technologies e.g. amygdala activation

Answer 127

Scatter graph

Answer 128

The scatter of dots indicates the degree of correlation between the co-variables. Perfect positive correlation = 1 High positive = 0.8 Low positive = 0.3 No correlation = 0 (Same for negatives)

Answer 129

Some relationships are curvilinear. This is where as one variable increases so does the other but only up to a certain point, after which, as one variable continues to increase the other decreases. As a correlation coefficient would be 0

Answer 130

● They can be used when it would be impractical or unethical to manipulate variables using another method ● It can make use of existing data (secondary), and so can be a quick and easy way to carry out research ● Often, no manipulation of behaviour is required. Therefore, it is often high in ecological validity because it is real behaviour or experiences. ● Correlations are very useful as a preliminary research technique, allowing researchers to identify a link that can be further investigated through more controlled research.

Answer 131

Correlation does not equal causation - no cause and effect relationships can be inferred e.g. one variable cannot be said to cause an increase or decrease in the other variable. The relationship could be explained by a third intervening variable. Correlations are open to misinterpretation.

Answer 132

A probability distribution bell-shaped curve. It is the predicted distribution when considering an equally likely set of results 0.5 = normally distributed

Answer 133

Where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right Whale is going home

Answer 134

The median and mean is higher than the mode

Answer 135

Most of the data is concentrated on the right, resulting in the long tail of an anomaly scores on the left Whale is going away from home

Answer 136

The median and mean is lower than the mode

Answer 137

Concerned with what is right and wrong

Answer 138

- If there are conflicting values between the researcher and that participants - submitted to the ethical panel at a university, use guidelines from the BPS

Answer 139

Can Do Can’t Do With Participants

Answer 140

- ps must be aware of what they are needed to do as part of the study in order to give valid consent, this means revealing the true aims of the study when appropriate - obtain written consent and give ps an participant information sheet containing all the info they need to make an informed decision - children/ people without mental capacity = next of kin

Answer 141

Ps still have the right to leave the experiment at any point in time. The ps must be made aware of this when they sign the consent form

Answer 142

Deliberately misleading or with holding information. Deceiving participants must be kept to a minimum. It will only be allowed to reduce demand characteristics, withholding details to avoid influencing behaviour is acceptable deliberately proving false information is not acceptable

Answer 143

- if Connor be obtained, eg field experiment, participants must be fully debriefed afterward - this involves telling the ps about the experiment and then giving them the option of withdrawing their info if they wish during debrief

Answer 144

- The communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust this will be data protected - psychologists need to be sure the info they publish will not allow for ps to be identified - a persons right to control the flow of information about themselves. We expect privacy in certain situation. - if the research is in a public space the research will be granted permission as long as it does not invade privacy

Answer 145

- participants should be no worse off when they leave an experiment as to when they arrived - risk is considered acceptable if it is no greater than what would be experienced in everyday life - if harm is caused then ps should be signposted to relevant services.

Answer 146

The best level of data is interval, the worst is nominal

Answer 147

- Nominal level data is data that can be grouped into categories e.g. favourite lessons. - There is no logical order to the categories. - The most appropriate measure of average for this level of measurement is the mode.

Answer 148

- Ordinal level data is data that is presented in ranked order (e.g. places in a beauty contest) but the values themselves have no meaning e.g. The person who comes 1st is not twice as beautiful at the person who comes 5th (out of ten competitors). - The data may be subjective e.g. happiness scores.

Answer 149

- Interval level data is measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale. For example, time measured in seconds. - Psychological tests which are standardised (psychometric test) e.g. IQ scores, are classed as interval

research methods Flashcards

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