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Sociology > Research Methods > Flashcards

Research Methods Flashcards

1
Q

Choosing a Research Method- Primary and Secondary

A
  • Primary data=collected by sociologists themselves for their own purposes
    Social surveys / participant observation / experiments
    Precise info to test hypotheses +
    Costly and time consuming -
  • Secondary data=collected by someone else for their purposes but applied to sociologists research
    Official statistics / documents
    Quick and cheap +
    Not as precise -
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2
Q

Choosing a Research Method- Quantitative and Qualitative

A
  • Quantitative=numerical data
    Questionnaires / structured interviews / official statistics
  • Qualitative=non-numerical data
    Participant observation / unstructured interviews / letters / newspaper articles
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3
Q

Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Practical Issues

A

=time and money
=requirements of funding bodies
=personal skills and characteristics
=subject matter
=research opportunity

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4
Q

Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Ethical Issues

A

=informed consent
=confidentiality and privacy
=harm to research participants =vulnerable groups
=covert research

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5
Q

Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Theoretical Issues

A
  • Validity
    True or genuine picture of what something is really like (accuracy)
    Qualitative methods
  • Reliability
    Extent to which study replicates exactly and produces same results
    Quantitative methods
  • Representativeness
    How well people in study typical of cross-section of group we’re interested in
    Can make generalisations
    Large-scale quantitative surveys
  • Methodological perspective
    View of what society is like and how we should study it
    Positivism- quantitative, patterns, sociology=science
    Interpretivism- qualitative, meanings, sociology is not a science
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6
Q

Choosing a Research Method- Factors Influencing Choice Of Methods- Factors Influencing Choice Of Topic

A
  • Sociologists perspective
    New right / feminist / Marxist / functionalist
  • Society’s values
    As values change, so does focus of research
  • Practical factors
    Inaccessibility of certain situations restricts topics able to study
  • Funding bodies
    As paying for research, they will determine topic to be investigated
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7
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Formulating an Aim or Hypothesis

A
  • Aim=a statement that identifies what a sociologist intends to study
    More open-ended (gather data on anything interesting) +
    Interpretivists=understanding actors meanings- qualitative
  • Hypothesis=a possible explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence to prove it true or false
    Gives direction to research +
    Positivists=cause and effect relationships- quantitative methods
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8
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Operationalising Concepts

A
  • Operationalisation=the process of converting a concept into something measurable
  • Problems arise when different sociologists operationalise the same concept differently=hard to compare findings of different pieces of research
  • Positivists=importance place on creating and testing hypotheses
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9
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Pilot Study

A
  • Pilot study=a small scale trial run, usually of a social survey, conducted before the main study- iron out any problems, so changes can be made before main study carried out
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10
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling

A
  • Sample=smaller sub-group drawn from the wider group that we are interested in
  • Sampling=the process of creating to selecting a sample
  • to ensure the people we have chosen in the study are representative of the research population (whole group we are interested in) so can generalise any findings
  • Positivists=general, law-like statements about wider social structure
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11
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling- Sampling Frame

A
  • Sampling frame=list of all members of population we are interested in studying
  • as compete and accurate as possible / up to date and without duplications
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12
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling- Sampling Techniques

A
  • Random sampling=sample is selected purely by chance
    Everyone has equal chance of being selected
    Needs to be large enough to reflect characteristics of research population
  • Quasi-random / Systematic sampling=every nth person in sampling frame is selected
  • Stratified sampling=researcher breaks down population in sampling frame (strata) and sample created in same proportions
  • Quota sampling=population stratified and interviewer given quota which have to fill with respondents who fit characteristics
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13
Q

Choosing a Research Method- The Process of Research- Samples and Sampling- Non-representative sampling

A
  • Practical reasons
    Social characteristics of research population not known
    Impossible to find/create sampling frame for research population
    Potential respondents refuse to participate
  • Snowball sampling=collecting sample by contacting individuals who suggest others to be interviewed and so on
    Useful to contact people difficult to find/persuade +
    Not representative-
  • Opportunity sampling=choosing from individuals easiest to access
    Not representative -
    Convenient +
  • Theoretical reasons
    May not choose representative sample due to methodological perspective
    Interpretivists=more important valid data and understanding of meanings than to discover general laws
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14
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Power and Status

A
  • Children=less power/status than adults=less likely to change views openly
  • Teachers=higher status/power over pupils
  • Structured interviews/questionnaires reinforce power situations=researcher in charge of questions- group interviews=better way to overcome this
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15
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Ability and Understanding

A
  • Pupils vocab, self-expression, thinking skills and confidence=more limited than adults
  • Sociologist needs to word questions in way that can be understood and try reinforce nature of informed consent (which is difficult to get out of children)
  • May match gender and ethnicity of pupil to researcher to account for different language codes etc
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16
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Vulnerability and Ethical Issues

A
  • Young people more vulnerable to physical/psychological harm than adults=more limited power and ability
  • Sociologist should consider whether young people in research is necessary / whether stand to benefit from it
  • Difficult to gain informed consent from child
  • More gatekeepers controlling access to pupils=more difficult research carried out
17
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Pupils- Laws and Guidelines

A
  • Child protection laws=vetting and barring scheme on adults in schools=DBS checks=delay/prevent researchers carrying out research
  • Sociologists will have access to pupils as required to be in school- not the case if target group=pupils with anti-school attitudes
    Although pupils only in school during day/term time
18
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Teachers- Power and Status

A
  • Teachers=more power and status due to experience and responsibilities=may view researcher as trespasser in their classroom
  • Researcher may need to invent cover of cover investigation=supply teacher=lower status so may not be treated as equal
19
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Teachers- Impression Management

A
  • May me more willing to be observed by researcher due to experience with ofsted inspections
  • Goffman=impression management=manipulating impression that other people have of us
    Act differently front stage with a role, as opposed to backstage like in staff room- although newcomer would stand out here
  • Teachers aware any critical comments they make=affect career prospects=reluctant to answer questions honestly
    Overcome using observational methods
  • Head teachers (gatekeeper)=influence teacher involved in research and may not be representative
20
Q

Education: The Research Context- Research Characteristics- Researching Classrooms

A
21
Q

Experiments- Laboratory

A
  • Positivists=reliable as standardised so can be repeated- quantitative and scientifically collected
  • Interpretivists=do not translate to social behaviour and low in validity
  • Problems:
    =artificiality- lowers validity
    =identifying and controlling variables
    =Hawthorne effect
    =ethical issues
    =limited application
    free will
22
Q

Experiments- Field

A
  • Advantages:
    =less artificiality
    =validity
  • Disadvantages:
    =less control over variables
    =limited application
    =ethical issues
  • The comparative method=thought experiment involving two of the same groups with one different characteristic- avoids artificiality/can study past/no ethical issues/no control
23
Q

Questionnaires

A
  • Advantages- Positivists:
    =quick, cheap, large amount of data
    =reliable
    =hypothesis testing- scientific
    =detachment and objectivity
    =representativeness
  • Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
    =limited information
    =low response rate
    =inflexibility
    =detachment- lacks validity
    =social desirability bias
    =researcher bias- imposing meanings
24
Q

Interviews- Structured

A
  • Advantages- Positivists:
    =reliable- standardised
    =representativeness- quick and large sample
    =cost-effective
    =interviewer-interviewee contact
    =limited interviewer effect
  • Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
    =lack of validity- open to interpretation / may not be truthful / prevents elaboration
    =unreliable- way questions asked differ
    =costly- train interviewers
    =social sensitivity
    =Feminists argue patriarchal
25
Q

Interviews- Unstructured

A
  • Advantages- Interpretivists:
    =high in validity- more honest and can elaborate / no imposing of ideas / flexible / data-rich
  • Disadvantages- Positivists:
    =not as valid as seems- subjective / impose ideas on interpretation of data
    =unreliable- not standardised
    =unrepresentative- smaller sample
    =social sensitivity
    =costly- train interviewers
    =relevance questioned
    =group interviews- conformity
26
Q

Observation- Participant

A
  • Advantages- Interpretivists:
    =high in validity- naturalistic / authentic / open research process / offers insight / data-rich / flexible / studying closed groups
  • Disadvantages- Positivists:
    =unreliable- not standardised
    =unrepresentative- carried out on small, specific groups
    =validity issues- Hawthorne effect / going native
    =ethical issues
    =getting in / staying in / getting out
27
Q

Observation- Structured

A
  • Advantages- Positivists:
    =reliable- standardised
    =data produced quickly and easy to analyse
  • Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
    =lack validity- event sampling offers no meaning- operationalisation of behavioural categories
    =only useful in small-scale interactions
28
Q

Official Statistics

A
  • Advantages- Positivists:
    =availability
    =representativeness
    =wide coverage
    =act as prompts to research
    =comparability of data
    =reliable
  • Disadvantages- Interpretivists:
    =definitions and measurements vary- reduces validity
    =not entirely reliable- open to manipulation
    =social construction
    =Marxists argue politically bias- reflecting ruling-class ideology
    =Feminists argue male bias- women not accounted for
29
Q

Documents- Personal

A
  • Advantages- Interpretivists:
    =high validity with genuine insight
    =cheap and save the researcher time
  • Disadvantages- Positivists:
    =some groups don’t have personal documents
    =some documents created after the event
    =personal bias
30
Q

Documents- Public

A
  • Historical documents:
    =only way we can study past societies
    =interpretation problems
    =unrepresentative as some may be lost/destroyed
  • Content analysis:
    =measures amount of coverage given to particular issue
    =correlation not causation
    =qualitative examines meanings- interpretation issues
  • Testing usefulness of documents:
    =authenticity
    =credibility
    =representativeness
    =meaning

Sociology (6 decks)

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