Research Methods Flashcards
(169 cards)
1
Q
qualitative data
A
non-numerical
2
Q
quantitative
A
numerical data
3
Q
quantitative - advantage
A
easy to analyse
4
Q
quantitative - disadvantage
A
lacks detail
5
Q
qualitative - advantage
A
rich in detail
6
Q
qualitative - disadvantage
A
hard to analyse
7
Q
What distinguishes experimental methods from others?
A
an IV, DV and cause and effect
8
Q
IV
A
deliberately manipulated by investigator
9
Q
DV
A
measured by investigator
10
Q
Participant variables
A
any characteristics or traits of the participant that might unfairly influence the results e.g. age, gender
11
Q
Investigator effects
A
any cues from investigator that encourage a certain behaviour in participants e.g. facial expressions
12
Q
environmental variables
A
any aspects of the environment or situation that might unfairly influence the results e.g. time of day, light
13
Q
Demand characteristics
A
any cues that reveal the aims of the study to the participants
- if they become aware, may alter behaviour to help or hinder the experiment
-may just alter behaviour without intention
14
Q
Standardisation
A
putting controls into place
-ensures all aspects are the same for every participant
-consistent standard
-environment, procedures, instructions
15
Q
Randomisation
A
Ensures all choices are randomly selected by chance
-rather than determined by researcher
16
Q
confounding variables
A
Any extraneous variable that is not controlled and spoils the results
17
Q
Internal validity
A
Whether or not the research measured what it intended to
-EVs are controlled
18
Q
External validity
A
whether results can be generalised to real life outside world
-representative
19
Q
ecological validity
A
Real life setting
20
Q
Population validity
A
Generalisable to other people in target population
21
Q
Temporal validity
A
Generalisable to modern world
22
Q
reliability
A
consistency
23
Q
lab experiments
A
establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV in a controlled environment using standardised procedures
24
Q
lab advantages
A
+high control
+easy to replicate
25
lab disadvantages
-demand characteristics
-low ecological validity
26
Field experiments
Establish cause and effect relationship between IV and DV conducted outside lab in real life environments
27
field advantages
+high ecological validity
+low demand characteristics
28
field disadvantages
-low degree of control
-difficult to replicate
29
natural experiments
establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV where IV varies naturally and is not deliberately manipulated by investigator
30
natural advantages
+high ecological validity
+provides opportunity for research that may not otherwise take place - e.g. unethical (age at which child is adopted) or impractical (intro of TV to society)
31
natural disadvantages
-random allocation to conditions is not possible - condition participants are in also occurs naturally which may be biased e.g. all people in one condition may be more intelligent or friendly
-difficult to replicate
32
quasi experiments
Establish a cause and effect relationship between IV and DV where IV doesn’t vary at all because the condition already exists e.g. gender, age
33
quasi advantages
+high ecological validity
+provides opportunity for research that may not otherwise take place - allows research where varying IV isn’t possible
34
quasi disadvantages
-random allocation not possible
-difficult to replicate
35
aims
General statement about what the researcher intends to study
36
Hypothesis
Precise and testable statement that states relationship between variables
37
Nom directional hypothesis
States that there will be an effect but doesn’t state which way that effect will go
38
Directional hypothesis
States which way effect will go
39
Pilot study
Small scale trial run
- checks research works as intended to
- no extraneous variables
40
Why pilot study?
1) do participants understand instructions
2)are materials and timings appropriate
3)ask a few participants about their experience
4)have variables been operationalised sufficiently
41
Population
Large group of individuals who share specific characteristics that a researcher is interested in studying
42
Sample
Smaller group that is representative of population
43
Bias in terms of sampling
Under or over representing certain groups within sample
44
Generalisation in terms of sampling
extent to which sample can be applied to population
45
Opportunity sampling
Anyone who is willing and available
E.g. approach on street
46
Opportunity advantage
+quick, convenient, economical
47
Opportunity disadvantages
-biased and unrepresentative
48
Volunteer sampling
Individuals put themselves forward
E.g. adverts in newspaper or notice boards
49
Volunteer advantage
+quick, convenient, economical
50
Volunteer disadvantage
-biased and unrepresentative
51
Systematic sampling
Every nth member of target population
E.g. school register
52
Systematic advantage
+avoids researcher bias
53
Systematic disadvantage
-not guaranteed to be representative e.g, could all be male - not everyone has equal chance of being selected
54
Random sampling
Everyone in target population has equal chance of being selected
E.g. names in hat
55
Random advantage
+avoids researcher bias
56
Random disadvantage
-not guaranteed to be representative
57
Stratified sampling
Sample that reflects the proportions of people in different subgroups within population
E.g. if 15% are under 18
1) identify subgroup
2) work out proportions
3) participants from each subgroup chosen randomly
58
Stratified advantage
+highly representative - names from hat also focus on subgroups
Reduces researcher bias
59
Stratified disadvantage
-time consuming and inconvenient - lots of necessary planning
60
Experimental design
Way in which participants are allocated to different conditions
61
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions
62
Repeated measures advantages
+no participant variables
+requires half as many participants
63
Repeated measures disadvantages
-suffers from order effects
-high demand characteristics
64
Independent groups
Participants are placed into separate groups randomly and each complete one of the conditions
65
Independent groups advantages
+no order effects
+low demand characteristics
66
Independent groups disadvantages
-low degree of control over participant variables
-requires twice as many participants
67
Matched pairs
Different participants used for different conditions, however, participants have been matched into pairs based on important characteristics. One of each pairs takes condition A and the other takes condition B
68
Matched pairs advantages
+no order effects
+low demand characteristics
69
Matched pairs disadvantages
-less control over participant variables than repeated measures
-requires twice as many participants
70
Random allocation
-controls investigator bias in independent groups
-assigning all participants a number, putting numbers onto slips of paper and slips of paper into hat
-numbers are drawn so that every other number goes in condition A
71
Counterbalancing
-controls impact of order effects in repeated measures
-half the group does A then B, other half does B then A
-order effects are distributed evenly
Doesn’t eliminate completely
72
Ethical issues
-deception
-lack of informed consent
-lack of protection from harm
-lack of right to withdraw
-lack of confidentiality
73
Deception
Participants are deliberately misled about the true nature of the study
-informed consent cannot be gained
-participant may become distrustful of psychology studies
74
How to deal with deception
Debrief
Retrospective consent
75
Lack of informed consent
For informed consent to be given, true aims of study must be revealed before giving participants choice to agree or refuse
76
How to deal with lack of informed consent
Presumptive consent
Retrospective consent
77
Lack of protection from harm
Ensure participants come to no more harm than they would in everyday life
-both psychological (e.g. embarrassment, anxiety) and physical harm
78
How to deal with lack of protection from harm
Keep within ethical code
Abandon study immediately if participants are harmed
79
Lack of right to withdraw
Must be made aware before, during and after study that it is their right to be able to leave
80
How to deal with lack of right to withdraw
Retrospective withdrawal
81
Lack of confidentiality
The right to keep data anonymous
82
How to deal with confidentiality
Pseudonyms
Anonymise and don’t publish anything identifiable
83
Observational techniques
Involves watching and recording behaviour
Non experimental
84
Naturalistic
Natural situation where researcher doesn’t influence in any way
E.g. infants in nursery
85
Naturalistic advantages
+no demand characteristics
+high ecological validity
86
Naturalistic disadvantages
-difficult to replicate
-low control over variables
87
Controlled observation
Environment has been controlled and regulated by researcher
E.g. observing infants in pre planned situations
88
Controlled advantages
+easy to replicate
+high control over variables
89
Controlled disadvantages
-low ecological validity
-high demand characteristics
90
Overt observations
Participant is aware they are being observed
91
Overt advantage
+no ethical issues
92
Overt disadvantage
-high demand characteristics
93
Covert observations
Participants are not aware that their behaviour is being watched
94
Covert advantage
+no demand characteristics
95
Covert disadvantage
-lack of informed consent
96
Non-participant observations
Researcher remains separate from people they are studying and records behaviour in more objective manner
E.g. female researcher observing boys at school
97
Non-participant advantage
+no investigator effects
98
Non-participant disadvantage
-no first hand insight
99
Participant observations
Observer becomes part of group that they are observing
Watches behaviour from within social situation
E.g. joining criminal gang
100
Participant observation advantage
+first hand insight
101
Participant observation disadvantage
-investigator effects
102
Observer bias
Observer’s expectations influence what researcher sees or hears or even the data they record
E.g. expecting boys to be more aggressive than girls might lead a researcher to spend more time looking for aggression in the boys
103
Event sampling
Continuously watching and counting number of times event occurs
104
Time sampling
Recording behaviour at specific time intervals
105
Event sampling advantage
+doesn’t overlook important behaviour
106
Event sampling disadvantage
-increases observer bias
107
Time sampling advantage
+reduces observer bias
108
Time sampling disadvantage
-overlooks important behaviour
109
Self report techniques
Questionnaire
Interview
110
Questionnaire
Written questions on a topic to assess participants thoughts, feelings, opinions
Always predetermined and structured
Open and closed questions
111
Closed questions
Fixed number of responses
Quantitative
112
Open questions
No fixed answer
Qualitative
113
Interviews
Asking participants questions face to face
Structured and unstructured
Open and closed questions
114
Questionnaire advantages
+no investigator effects
+easy to gather large sample
115
Questionnaire disadvantages
-can’t clarify ambiguous questions
-can’t observe behaviour
116
Interview advantages
+can clarify ambiguous questions
+can observe behaviour
117
Interview disadvantage
-investigator effects
-difficult to gather large sample
118
Structured interviews
Predetermined set of questions in fixed order
Standardised
119
Unstructured interviews
Free flowing conversation with no set questions
General aim of topic discussed
Interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate
120
Structured advantages
+easy to replicate
+less investigator effects
121
Structured interview disadvantages
-less detail and flexibility to explore
-less trust and rapport to reduce social desirability bias
122
Unstructured interview advantages
+more detail and flexibility to explore
+more trust and rapport to reduce social desirability bias
123
Unstructured interview disadvantages
-difficult to replicate
-investigator effects
124
Semi structured interviews
List of predetermined questions but also freedom to explore and ask follow up questions
125
Correlation
analyses strength and direction of a relationship between two co variables
-neither are manipulated so no cause and effect
126
Co-variables
variables in a correlation that are being analysed
127
Correlations are plotted on a….
Scattergram
128
Positive Correlation
As one co-variable increases, the other increases
129
Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases
130
Zero correlation
No relationship
131
Correlation co-efficient
number that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables
-1 = perfect negative
0 = no correlation
+1 = perfect positive
132
Correlation - advantages
+easy to analyse - quantitive
+further research - identifies link that opens up new lines of research
133
Correlation - disadvantage
- no cause and effect
-3rd variable problem - could be due to a third variable - link between stress and illness could be lack of sleep caused by stress causing illness
134
Primary data
Original data directly observed and collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation
135
Secondary data
Collected by someone other than the person conducting the research- data that already exists e.g. journals, books, websites
136
Meta analysis
Combining results from a number of studies
137
Primary data advantages
+quality control
+ensure research fits objectives
138
Primary data disadvantages
-time consuming and expensive
-statistical significance not known
139
Secondary data advantages
+quick and cheap
+statistical significance known
140
Secondary data disadvantages
-no quality control
-can’t ensure research fits objectives
141
Meta-analysis advantage
+easy to gather on large scale
142
Meta-analysis disadvantage
-may suffer file drawer effect - process of selecting them can be open to bias - leave out studies that don’t suit hypothesis
143
Mean
Add up all scores and divide by total number of scores
144
Median
Middle score
145
Mode
Most common score
146
Mean advantage
+Sensitive measure
147
Mean disadvantage
-skewed by extreme measures
148
Median and mode advantage
+not skewed by extreme scores
149
Median and mode disadvantage
-not a sensitive measure
150
Range
Highest subtract lowest
151
Standard deviation
Measures spread around the mean
-large = widely spread
-small = clustered
152
Range advantage
+easy to calculate
153
Range disadvantage
-not sensitive
154
SD advantage
+sensitive
155
SD disadvantage
-difficult to measure
156
Bar charts
Discrete data - categories
Space between bars - not continuous
157
Histograms
Bars touch - continuous data
158
Line graph
Continuous joined by line
159
Scattergram
Continuous data
Do not depict
160
Normal distribution
-mean median and mode are exact mid point
-distribution is symmetrical
-dispersion on either side is consistent
68.26% of people lie within 1 SD
95.44% of people lie within 2SD
161
Skewed distribution
Not symmetrically spread
Positive to left
Negative to right
Mode remains at midpoint
Median
Then mode
162
Peer review
Assessment of work by independent experts that ensures high quality
163
Peer review aims
1) validate quality
2) suggest changes or improvements
3) allocate funding
4) validity
164
Peer review strength
+stops flawed and fraudulent research
165
Peer review disadvantage
-slows down publication - anonymous so could use as opportunity to
-growing use of internet means less peer review
166
Implications for economy - memory
Cognitive interview - Kohnken
167
Implications for economy - attachment
Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
168
Implications for economy - approaches and psychopathology
Mental health - £22.5 billion
169
Implications for economy - social influence
Behavioural insight team
