research methods

Question 1

operationalisation

Answer 1

making variables clearly defined and measured.

Question 2

what is a hypothesis?

Answer 2

Clear and precise testable statement.
- states the relationship between the variables being investigated

Question 3

alternate hypothesis

Answer 3

statement of a relationship between variables (there is a difference).

Question 4

null hypothesis

Answer 4

statement of no relationship between variables (there is no difference).

Question 5

cause and effect

Answer 5

the only thing that should cause a change in the DV is the IV

Question 6

extraneous variables

Answer 6

Unwanted “extra variables” that may interfere with the relationship between the IV and DV,
- Can affect DV.

IF not controlled: the researcher cannot truly know what caused the change in the DV.

Question 7

standardised procedures:

Answer 7

Using the exact same methods and procedures for participants in a research study.
To control EVs.
Only the IV should change.

Question 8

randomisation:

Answer 8

using chance (eg.flipping a coin) to control effects of a bias when designing a study.

Question 9

demand characteristics

Answer 9

• characteristics of a study that may give away the purpose of the experiment.
• participants might become aware of aim.
• participants may change their behaviour to be seen in a better light/different way.

Question 10

lab experiments:

Answer 10

Takes place in a labratory.
- Experimenter has a high control over what happens.

strengths:
- Extraneous variable can be controlled.
weaknesses:
- task do not usually represent things we do in our everyday lives.(artificial task).
- Participants may change their behavior (they’re aware that they’re being watched).

Question 11

Field experiments:

Answer 11

Takes place in a natural setting.
- IV is still changed by experimenter.

strengths:
- More realistic than lab experiments (natural environment).
- Can use standardised procedures (some control).
weaknesses:
- May lose control of EVs (difficult to show cause and effect).
- Ethical issues (participants aren’t aware of the study.

Question 12

natural experiments:

Answer 12

Takes place in a natural setting.
- IV isn’t changed by experimenter (naturally occurring).

strengths:
-High validity (due to the real world variables).
-Can standardise procedures (some control over EVs).
weaknesses:
-Few opportunities to do this kind of research as behaviours may be rare.
-May be EVs (due to the fact that participants aren’t randomly allocated to conditions).

Question 13

experimental designs:

Answer 13

Different ways participants can be organised in relation to IVs/conditions of the experiment.

Question 14

repeated measures:

Answer 14

all participants take part in all levels of the IV.

strengths:
-no participant variables.
-fewer participants needed so its less expensive.
weakness:
order effects reduce validity (eg. practice effect: participants may do better the second time).

Question 15

order effects:
dealing with them:

Answer 15

EV arising from the order in which conditions are presented (in repeated measures).

How to deal with them:
- Counterbalancing: half the participants do the conditions in one order, other half do the opposite order,

Question 16

independent groups:

Answer 16

Different group of participants for each level of the IV (condition).
- control and experimental group.

strengths:
order effects aren’t a problem because participants only do the experiment once.
weaknesses:
-different participants in each group, participant variables can act as an EV.

Question 17

participant variable:
dealing with them:

Answer 17

Differing individual characteristics of participants.

How to deal with them:
Llocation: using chance or a systematic method to allocate participants to conditions, this way the researcher doesn’t influence who goes in each group and also makes participant variables even across the different conditions.

Question 18

matched pairs:

Answer 18

• participants tested on variables relevant to the study
• participants are matched, and one member of each pair goes into each condition

Question 19

evaluate the use of matched pairs.

Answer 19

strengths:
-no order effects
-fewer participant variables
weaknesses:
-takes time to match participants
-doesn’t control all participant variables

Question 20

what is a sample?

Answer 20

subset of target population which aims to be representative of that population

Question 21

what is sampling method?

Answer 21

system used to produce sample.

Question 22

what is research bias?

Answer 22

process where the scientists performing the research influence the results in order to to portray a certain outcome.

Question 23

what is random sampling and evaluate the use?

Answer 23

each person has equal chance of selection.

strengths:
-no bias (because everyone has an equal chance of selection).
weaknesses:
-takes time (have to make a list of members of the target population).

Question 24

what is opportunity sampling and evaluate the use?

Answer 24

selecting people that are available.

strengths:
quick+cheap (participants are just there).
weaknesses:
only represents the population from which it was drawn.

Question 25

what is systematic sampling and evaluate the use?

Answer 25

selecting every nth person from a list of the target population. strengths: avoids researcher bias. weaknesses: might be unrepresentative- (all males or all females).

Question 26

what is stratified sampling and evaluate the use?

Answer 26

selecting participants in proportion to frequency in target population. strengths: very representative. weaknesses: very time-consuming to sort sub-groups.

Question 27

what are interviews and evaluate the use?

Answer 27

self report method. - face to face, real time contact and can also be done over phone or text. strengths: -produce a lot of info. -insight gained into thoughts and feelings. weaknesses: -data can be difficult to analyse. -people may feel uncomfortable talking face to face.

Question 28

structured interviews:

Answer 28

- reads list of questions. - can have prepared follow up questions. - follows exact script.

Question 29

unstructured interviews:

Answer 29

- some questions prepared before. - new questions created depending on what the interviewee says. - much like a conversation.

Question 30

semi-structured interviews:

Answer 30

- some questions decided before but follow up questions emerge at certain points. - “goes with the flow”.

Question 31

what are questionnaires and evaluate the use?

Answer 31

prepared list of questions which can be answered in writing, over the phone, internet ect. strengths: -can gather info from many people quickly. -data that is easier to analyse than interviews. -easier to make comparisons. weaknesses: -social desirability bias - low validity. -may be unclear.

Question 32

open questions:

Answer 32

- more likely in an interview. - no fixed range of possible answers respondents are free to reply in any way they wish. - produces qualitative data.

Question 33

closed questions:

Answer 33

- more likely in questionnaires. - fixed range of possible answers. - use rating scales, yes/no ect produces quantitative data.

Question 34

what are leading questions?

Answer 34

a question that prompts or encourages the desired answer.

Question 35

what is an observation and evaluate the use?

Answer 35

a researcher watches or listens to participants and records data. strengths: -greater validity as it’s based of what people actually do. weaknesses: -ethical issues as no consent has been given. -observer bias: observers expectations affect validity as they may only record data that fits their expectations or may look over details.

Question 36

natural observation and controlled observation:

Answer 36

natural observation: researcher records behaviour where it would normally occur. controlled observation: researcher manipulates aspects of the environment.

Question 37

what are covert and overt observations?

Answer 37

covert observation: participants aren’t aware behaviour is being recorded. overt observation: told that they’re being recorded in advance.

Question 38

what are participant and non-participant observations?

Answer 38

participant observation: researcher is part of the group being recorded. non-participant observation: researcher remains separate from the group that is being recorded.

Question 39

what is categories of behaviour?

Answer 39

- systematic method of collecting data - target behavior broken into separate observable changes (smiling, laughing, touching).

Question 40

interobserver reliability:

Answer 40

- observational studies should be carried out by more than one researcher because bias can be a problem. - a single researcher may overlook important details or only record data that fits expectations. - they would watch at the same time, have the same categories of behaviour and and compare data at the end.

Question 41

what are correlations and evaluate the use?

Answer 41

shows how things are linked together (associations). strengths: -allows psychologists to carry out investigations on things that cant be experimented on. -high level of ecological validity as nothing is set up or manipulated. weaknesses: -don’t show cause and effect. -no control over EVs so wrong conclusions may be drawn.

Question 42

scatter diagrams:

Answer 42

- a special graph used to plot correlation data. - one co-variable is on the x-axis and the other is on the y- axis. - a dot is placed where they meet.

Question 43

types of correlation:

Answer 43

positive correlation: as one co-variable increases the other increases. negative correlation: as one co-variable increases the other decreases. zero correlation: no relationship between co-variables.

Question 44

what are case studies and evaluate the use?

Answer 44

in-depth investigation of an individual, group, event or institution. strengths: - more than one method to collect data on the same topic. -naturally occurring. -high ecological validity. -rich and detailed qualitative data. weaknesses: -lack of replication. -cannot generalise findings. -time consuming. -subjectivity bias causes low validity (findings are based on the psychologists opinion).

Question 45

case studies- qualitative method:

Answer 45

- collect information about people’s experiences in words. - data in a case study may be describing past events or interviews (qualitative). - some case studies may involve experimental testing that produces quantitative data (eg. intelligence tests which produce a numerical score) to see what the person can and can't do.

Question 46

case studies- longitudinal:

Answer 46

- often carried out over a long period of time so we can see how behaviour changes. - may include looking back in time (a case history) or following an event over time.

Question 47

what is the issue with psychological studies?

Answer 47

conflict between participants’ rights and well-being and the need to gain valuable results.

Question 48

informed consent

Answer 48

participants must be told comprehensive information (nature, purpose and role) at the beginning and they can make an informed decision about whether or not they want to take part.

Question 49

how to deal with informed consent?

Answer 49

participants (or guardians) sign a form that tells them what is to be expected.

Question 50

deception

Answer 50

participants shouldn’t be lied to or misled about aim -mild deception can be justified (withholding info about the other group/condition)

Question 51

protection from harm

Answer 51

- participants shouldn’t be placed at risk. - physical and psychological safety should always be protected. - not made to feel stressed or embarrassed.

Question 52

how to deal with deception and protection from harm?

Answer 52

- participants have a full debrief to explain true aims and other conditions ect. - participants are allowed to withhold data if unhappy with some aspects of study. - reduce stress (assure them it was typical behaviour) might be offered counseling).

Question 53

privacy

Answer 53

participants have the right to control information about themselves.

Question 54

confidentiality

Answer 54

- personal data must be protected and respected. - data collected belongs to that person. - personal details shouldn’t be accessible (usually anonymous).

Question 55

how to deal with privacy and confidentiality?

Answer 55

- participants must be anonymous (given numbers or referred to by initials). - data must not be shared unless given consent. - participants should be reminded that data will be protected and remain confidential.

Question 56

what is the BPS guidelines?

Answer 56

-code of conduct all professional psychologists in the UK need to follow

Question 57

reliability:

Answer 57

- if it can be repeated its reliable. - measure of consistency.

Question 58

reliability of quantitative methods:

Answer 58

- tend to be more reliable - lab experiments are controlled and easy to repeat exactly. -interviews/questionnaires: same person should answer the same questions in the same way- Closed questions are likely to be more reliable. - observations: one or two observers (interobserver reliability) should produce the same observations if repeated.

Question 59

reliability of qualitative methods:

Answer 59

less reliable. - case studies and unstructured interviews are difficult to repeat in the same way. - data coming from interviews and case studies are open to interpretations.

Question 60

validity:

Answer 60

relates to whether a result is a true reflection of “real world” behavior.

Question 61

validity of sampling methods:

Answer 61

- the sample may not represent the target population. - high representativeness = stratified sampling. - low representativeness = opportunity sampling.

Question 62

validity of experimental designs:

Answer 62

- repeated measures: order effects challenge validity (can be overcome by counterbalancing). - independent groups: participant variables challenge validity (can be overcome by random allocation). - matched pairs: overcome both problems (though it isn’t perfect).

Question 63

validity of quantitative methods:

Answer 63

- lab experiments: task, setting and participant awareness challenges validity = reduces naturalness and has high control. - field experiments: artificial tasks and lack of control of extraneous variables challenge validity = more natural. - methods for producing numerical data (eg questionnaires) lack validity as they reduce behavior to a score = therefore we get little to no insight into other aspects of their behavior.

Question 64

validity of qualitative methods:

Answer 64

- case studies have greater validity as they give deeper insight into behavior, thoughts and the participant’s point of view. - difficult to analyse = reduces validity, findings are fairly subjective and the researcher’s own expectations influence the analysis.

Question 65

what is quantitative data and evaluation of use?

Answer 65

quantities (numbers) - can measure thoughts/feelings. strengths: -easy to analyse and draw conclusions. -straightforward to make comparisons. -statistics are open to less interpretation = less chance of bias. weaknesses: -lacks depth and detail. -lacks validity. -doesn't reflect real world complexity.

Question 66

what is qualitative data and evaluate the use?

Answer 66

data in words - can be turned into numbers by counting themes. strengths: -more depth and detail. -better insight (participant is free to fully express thought). -more validity. weaknesses: -difficult to analyse and summarise (a lot of material). -difficult to draw conclusions. -conclusions may be based on the researcher’s own opinions = open to bias.

Question 67

what is primary data and evaluate the use?

Answer 67

data that has been obtained first hand by the researcher. - collected data matches the aim of the study (collected for the purpose of the research). strengths: -suits the aims of the research = more useful. -authentic. weaknesses: -takes time and effort to collect. -costly. -much easier and quicker to use data that is already conducted.

Question 68

what is secondary data and evaluate the use?

Answer 68

- second hand data. - from other studies or government statistics. - already exists. strengths: -easy and convenient to use. -saves expenses. -saves time. -little effort. weaknesses: -may not fit what the researcher is investigating. -may be out-of-date. -not quite complete or of poor quality = may waste time

Question 69

descriptive statistics:

Answer 69

express numbers in a way that shows the overall pattern.

Question 70

what is range and evaluate the use?

Answer 70

spread of data. - arrange data in order and subtracts the lowest from the highest value. strengths: easy to calculate. weaknesses: -can be distorted by extreme scores .

Question 71

what is mean and evaluate the use?

Answer 71

mathematical average. - add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores. strengths: -uses all the data. weaknesses: -can be distorted by extreme values.

Question 72

what is median and evaluate the use?

Answer 72

put data in order from lowest to highest. - middle value. strengths: -not affected by extreme scores. weaknesses: -less sensitive than the mean to variation in values.

Question 73

what is mode and evaluate the use?

Answer 73

most common score. strengths: -very easy to calculate. weaknesses: -can be unrepresentative.

Question 74

frequency tables:

Answer 74

-frequency: number or times it occurs. -frequency tables are a systematic way to organize data in rows and columns.

Question 75

frequency diagrams:

Answer 75

- histogram: continuous categories, no spaces between bars. - bar chart: bars can be in any order - normal distribution: symmetrical spread forms a bell shape with mean, median and made at peak

Question 76

decimals:

Answer 76

- any number written with a decimal. - position represents value. - eg. 0.2

Question 77

fractions:

Answer 77

- reduce to simplest form. - eg. 1/2

Question 78

ratios:

Answer 78

- way to express fractions. - 8:2 = 4.1

Question 79

percentages:

Answer 79

- fractions out of 100. - eg. 58%

Question 80

standard form:

Answer 80

mathematical shorthand to represent very large or very small numbers. 32000 = 3.2 x 10^4. 0.00032 = 3.2 x 10^-4.

Question 81

significant figures:

Answer 81

- numbers expressed to the required degree of accuracy eg. 2 significant figure: 32,462 = 32,000 0.003256 = 0.0033

Question 82

estimate results:

Answer 82

rough calculation.