research methods Flashcards
(82 cards)
1
Q
what is an independent variable
A
variable that you manipulatein a peice of research. so effect on DV can be measured
2
Q
what is a dependant variable
A
The one that you measure, any effect on dv should be caused by change in IV
3
Q
operalization
A
defining variables in terms of how they can be measure
4
Q
hypothesis
A
clear,testeable and prescisestatement stating relationship between variables
5
Q
directional
A
predicting the direction of the effect of IV on DV
6
Q
non directional
A
predicting the effect but NOT the direction.
7
Q
aim
A
**simply a statement* about aims of investigation.
8
Q
extraneous variable
A
- variable other than IV(change) that may effect the Dv if not controlled
- eg age of pp
9
Q
confounding variable
A
- when EV has not been properly controlled and interferes with DV(results)
10
Q
situational variables
A
- EVs linked to the situation rather than pps
eg, temperature - eg intructions,lighting,temp,noise
11
Q
participent variables
A
- EVs linked to participents rather than situation
- eg age,experience,gender,personality
12
Q
investigator effects
A
- Any effect on DV(measure) as a result of the investigators behaviour
- eg smilimg or nodding (intentional or subconcously)
13
Q
Demand characteristics
A
- any cues from research or situation to the pp which may lead to pp chaning behaviour
- eg knowledge of study,order of tasks
- screw you or please you effect
14
Q
types of validity
face validity
A
- whether it looks subjectivley promising
- appears to measure what it is supposed to.
15
Q
concurrent validity
A
- extent to which a psycological measure compares to a similar existing measure
- results obtained should either match or be closely similar to the results of a well established and recognised test.
16
Q
temporal validilty
A
- generalisability to other historial times and eras.
17
Q
ecological validity
A
- extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and settings
18
Q
ways of improving validity
A
- using a control group in experimental research to asses whether changes in DV were due to effect on IV
- standardised procedures
- single&double blind trials to achieve the same aim
- questionaires(assuring pps all data is anonymous)
- observations
- qualitative methods-higher ecological validity
19
Q
social desirablity bias
A
- type of response bias tendancy to answer questions in ways that represtent themselves in socially acceptable terms or attempt to gain approval from others
20
Q
randomisation
A
- use of chance to reduce effects of bias from investigator effects
- eg for design of matirials,deciding order of conditions,selection of pps.
21
Q
random allocation
A
- random allocation of pps to experimental and control conditions in an extremely important process in research.
- decreases systematic error
- individual dfferences less likely to affect results
22
Q
experimental designs
Independant group design
A
- pps allocated into different groups
- each group represent one experimental condition
23
Q
experimental designs
repeated measures design
A
- all pps allocated to all groups
- take part in all conditions
24
Q
experimental designs
matched pairs design
A
- pps take part in only one experimental condition
- eg intelligence,gender,age
25
# experimental designs
How do we deal with issues in MPD&IGD
* random allocation eg put names in hat and pick
* **counterbalancing** attempt to control order of effects in RMD
* ABBA technique half take part in A then B half take part in B then A
26
# experimental designs
order of effects
* when pps are tested more than once in repeated measures
* can lead to better performance due to practice
* or tiredness and bordem
27
# experimental designs
how do we deal with issues in repeated measures design
* **counter balancing** reduces order of effects
*
28
# experimental designs
problem with independant variables
* variation betweenpps can effect DV
* eg age,race,socialclass
* problem for **independant measures** control this by random assignmement
29
# types of experiments
Labortary
* takes place in a **controlled environment**
* manipulating Iv recording effect on DV
* :)easier to replicate, **standardised procedure**
* :(may produce unatural behaviour,low ecological validity
* demand characteristic,investigator effects
30
# types of experiment
Field
* done in **every day life** environment of pps
* still **manipulates IV** but IRL setting
* cannot really control EV
* :)behaviour **more likely** to refelct real life,higher ecological **validity**
*:( difficult to replicateðical issues as no consent
31
# types of experiments
Natural
* done in **every day life** of pps but **NO CONTROL over IV**
* takes advantage of **pre existing** Iv that wouldve happend anyway
* :) high ecological validity,can provide opportunities for reasearch that may have not been taken for ethical issues
* :( naturally occuring event may only happen rarely,difficult to replicate
32
# types of experiment
Quasi
* contain a **naturally occuring** IV(change)
* eg difference in people that already exists
* :) carried under controlled variables,easier to replicate, control on EV&IV effect and cause established.
* :( maybe confounding variables(when EV not properly controlled), cannot randomly allocate pps.
33
# sampling techniques
population
general population in whole world
34
# sampling technoques
target population
large group pf individuals researcher may be interested in
35
# sampling techniques
sample
group of people who take part in reasearch drawn from target population
36
# sampling techniques
opportunity sampling
* taking sample from people **available at the time**
* &fit for criteria
* :) easy and inexpensive to carry out
* :( may not be representive,could be subjective to bias
37
# sampling techniques
volunteer sampling
* pps select themselves to be apart of sample
* :) easy and less time consuming
* :( asking may attract certain people leading to bias and less valid results
38
# sampling techniques
random sampling
* everyone has **equal** change being selected
* eg ranomdly selected on computer
* :) no bias or researcher influence
* :( not representive of whole population
39
# sampling techniques
stratified sampling
* people in certain subgroups within target pop
* randomly selected in **proportional amounts**
* :) increases chances of attaining representive sample
* :( takes more rescourses×
40
# sampling techniques
systematic sampling
* listing all then selecting the **nth** person till you reach desired population size
* eg every 4th
* :) unbiased if randomised representitive data
* :( if not randomised can be biased
41
Bias
* if certain groups maybe **over or underestimated** within sample selected
* eg too many young people
42
generalisation
* extent to which the findings and conclusions from a study **can be applied to a population**
* only possible if sample of of pps is **representitave ** of population.
43
standardisation
* using the **same procedures** for **all** pps
* eg same environment,instructions and experience
44
45
# ethical issues
BPS(british phsycological society) ethical issues
* depection
* protection from harm
* informed consent
* debreifing
* right to withdraw
* confitientiality
46
# ethical issues
informed consent
* making pps **aware** of **aims** of research,procedure and their rights
* they can choose whether to take part or not
| how to deal
## Footnote
* ensure pps have been given all info that may affect their descision
* under 16=parental consent signature
47
# ethical issues
deception
* **deliberetly** misleading or witholding information from pps
*informed consent not given
| how to deal
## Footnote
* need for deception should be **approved** by ethics comitee
* debriefed at end of study
48
# ethical issues
protection from harm
* pps not placed in any more risk than in **daily lives**
* protected from **physical&physcological harm**
* eg embaressed,stress,pressure
* they have the **right to withdraw**
| how to deal
## Footnote
* at the end of study **full debreif** of the aims
* given right to **withdraw data**
* reassured behaviour is typical&normal
* may require councilling researcher may provide
49
# ethical issues
privacy&confidentiality
* pps have right to control information about themselves
* right of **privacy** extends to where study took place
* geological location not named.
| how to deal
## Footnote
* maintain anonymity eg numbers or initials of pps
* during **debrefing** pps reminded data is **protected** throughout process
50
# ethical issues
debreifing
* post research interview inform pps **true nature of study**
51
# ethical issues
right to withdraw
* pps have the right to **withdraw** themselves&data at any time.
52
# pilot studies
what is a pilot study
* a small scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken
* allow potential **problems to be identified**
* allows **money&time** saved in the long run
## Footnote
* self reports orinterviews important to **reword or remove** wods that may be ambigious orconfusing.
53
# pilot studies
what is important to check?
* timings
* understanding of instructions
* ethical issues
* fatigue
* damand characteristics and investigator effects
* equipment functioning
*
54
single blind procedure
* **researcher** does not tell pps if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment
* avoid **demand characteristics**
*
55
double blind procedure
* **neither pp or experimentor ** knows who is recieving particular treatment
* prevents **bias** due to demand characteristics or placebo effect
* reduces **investigator effects**
56
control groups&conditions
* set as a **baseline** resulys from experimental condition are compared to this one
* is change is **siginificantly greater** easier to conclude it was the effect of IV.
57
# observational techniques
Naturalistic observation
* watching and recording behaviour in a **natural setting** wouldve taken place normally
* people **expected to be observed**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) high ecological validity as its naturally occuring behaviour
* :( **cannot** be replicated tocheck reliability as researcher is not in **control** of variables
58
# observational techniques
controlled observation
* watching&recording behaviour from a **structured envioronment**
* less natural as ps **may be aware** they are in a study.
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) more control over **extraneous&confounding variabl**,can be replicated to check reliability
* :( **low ecological validity** behaviour in artificial environment leading to **demand characteristics**
59
# observational techniques
Covert observation
| covert(under**co**ver)
* pps are **unaware** they are being watched or observed
* **without consent**
* observer usually tucked away from view
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) **natural behaviour** decreases **investigator effects** & removes **demand characteristics**
* :( **ethical issues** could be invading pps privacy as they didnt give consent
60
# observational techniques
Overt observation
* behaviour is observed and pps **are aware** they are being watched
* they have given **full consent**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) **ethically acceptable** since conent is given
* :( can lead to **demand characteristics**, and more likely to have **unatural** behaviour through **investigator effects** through **social desirability bias**
61
# observational techniques
participent observation
* observer **becomes part of group** that is being observed
*
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) more **insightful** increasing **validity of findings**,unlikelyto overlook or miss any behavious
* :( could lead to **researcher bias** as they may lose n**objectivity** their behaviour moight influence pps.
62
# observational techniques
non participent observation
* observes from a distance not apart of group being observed,**remains seperate**
* more**objective way**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) can be less bias,less likley to **identify** with pps
* :( due to **lack of proximity** may overlook or **miss behaviour**, or open to **observr bias** eg steryotypes that they are aware of.
63
# observational designs
behavioural catogories
* when target behaviour being observed is broken up into more **prescise components** that are **observable&measureable**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) more structured and **objective**
* :( difficult to make clear,all forms of behaviour must be listed can be unambigious
64
# observational design
unstructured observation
| everything
* consists of **continious recording** where researcher writes **everything they see**
*
| stregths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) more **richness&depth** of detail increasing validity
* :( risk of **observer bias**,only see the behaviour they're interested in,producing **qualititative data**
65
# observational design
structured
* necessary to **simplify target behaviours**
* reasearcher **quantifies** what they are observing with a **predetermined list** of **behaviours&sampling mehthods**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) **quantitative data** produced easy to analyse and compare with other data,less risk of **observer bias**
* :( difficult to recieve **high interobserver reliability**,as filling predetermined lists is **subjective**
66
# observational designs
time sampling(structured)
* recording/tallying behaviour within a certain **timeframe ** that is **predetermined** before study
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) less time consuming as it reduces numbe rof observations,more structured&systematic
* :( **important details** can go missed data unpresenntitative of **whole observation**
67
# observational designs
event sampling(structured)
* counting/tallying when **particular behaviour** is carried out.
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) useful for **infrequent behaviour**,researcher still picks up behaviour that doesnt occur in regualr intervals
* :( important details of behaviour **may be overlooked** as its **complex**,counting errors,effecting **validity**
68
# self report techniques&design
self report technique
* method in which a person is asks to **state or explain**ir own feelings,opinions/experiences related to a given topic
69
# self report techniques&designs
questionnaire
* set of written questions used to asses a persons **thoughts/experiences**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) cost effective,saves time&money,easy to analyse
* :( **social desirability bias** (changing answers to present themselve better)
* :( **acquiesnce bias**(tendancy to agree with items regardless how they feel)
* no researcher present unable to clear up **misunderstandings**
70
# self report techniques&designs
open questions
* allow pps to **elaborate** on their answers and give **more detail**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) **qualitative data** rich in detail
* :( difficult to analyse
71
# self report techniques&designs
closed questions
* offers a **fixed number** of responses eg choosing an option "yes or no"
*
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) **quantative data** easier to analyse,saves money
* :( lacks depth
72
# self report techniques&designs
interview
* **live** encounter where interviewer is asks a set of qs to asses interviewees **thoughts/experiences**
* qs may be **preset or may develop**
73
# self report techniques&designs
structured interview
* predetermined list of qs
* asked in a **fixed order**
| strengths&weaknesses
## Footnote
* :) easy to replicate,high reliability,quick
* :( **cant elaborate**, limited richness of data
74
# self report techniques&designs
unstructured interview
* free flowing questions
* general aim, interviewee **encuraged to expand** on answers.
| * :) greater **flexibility**,greater insight on interviewee
* :( analysi
75
# self report techniques&design
designing interviews
* **standardised list of qs**
* rapport (establishing reationship)
* ethics
* interview scedual-qs intent to cover
* treat interviewees with **confidence**
76
# self report design
likert scales
* indicates **agreement or otherwise**
* statement using **5 points**
77
# self report design
rating scales
* respondents identify **a value** that represents their feeling about a certain topic
78
# self report designs
fixed choice option
* includes a **list** of possible options
* respondents requires to pick what applies to them.
79
# self report designs
writing good questions
* **overuse of jargon** (using technical terms where those within particular feild or area will know)
* **emotive language and leading qs**(attitude toawrds topic is clear)
* **doublebarrelled questions/double negatives**(two qs in one,or difficukt to decifer) e.g i am not unhappy in my job(agree or disagree)
80
role of peer review
* **allocation of research funding**
* assess the quality&relevance of research
* suggesting improvements
* assessing the research rating of university departments
81
evaluation of peer review
* not always possible to find **appropriate expert**
* **publication bias** research may publish significant positive results, result can create false impression of current state of pyscology if editors are selective/bias.
* **burying ground breaking research**-may surpress research that might contradict the views of reviewer.rearch that poses a challenge or fresh/new less likely to be passed.
82
psycology&the economy
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