Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
What are the independent and dependent variable?
A
Independent Variable - The part of the experiment that changes, whether naturally or due to the researcher changing it, in order to have an effect on the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable - The part of the experiment which is measured by the researcher. These changes are due to the independent variable.
2
Q
What is a laboratory experiment?
A
A laboratory experiment is one which takes place in a specific, artificial setting where variables are able to be controlled.
3
Q
What are the 3 advantages of a laboratory experiment?
A
- High levels of control - since the effects of extraneous variables are minimised, the experimenter can be more confident that the independent variable has changed the dependent variable.
- Replication - as the strict controls makes it easier to replicate the study.
- Cause and effect - this can be easily determined, as the cause is the IV and the effect is the DV.
4
Q
What are the 2 disadvantages of a laboratory experiment?
A
- Lack of ecological validity - because the setting is artificial, experiments may not be a reflection of real life behaviour.
- Demand Characteristics - participants may be able to predict the aim and respond according to how they believe they are being experimented.
5
Q
What is a field experiment?
A
In a field experiment, behaviour is measured in a natural environment, however, the experimenter still has strict control over the independent and dependent values.
6
Q
What are the 3 advantages of a field experiment?
A
- Ecological Validity, as it takes place in a natural environment.
- Avoidance of Demand Characteristics, as if participants aren’t aware they are in an experiment, they can be avoided.
- Cause and Effect, as the cause can be identified as the independent variable and effect can be identified as the dependent variable.
7
Q
What are the 3 disadvantages of a field experiment?
A
- Less control, as it is harder to minimise extraneous variables.
- Ethical issues, as participants may not have agreed to take part and may feel stressed.
- Difficult to replicate, as it is carried out in the real world, therefore you cannot get the same sample.
8
Q
What is a natural experiment?
A
A natural experiment is a study that measures variables that aren’t directly manipulated by the experimenter. Therefore, the independent value occurs naturally.
9
Q
What are the 2 strengths of natural experiments?
A
- Ethics, as natural experiments make it possible to study variables that would be unethical to manipulate
- Ecological Validity, as natural behaviours are being measured since the independent value isn’t changed.
10
Q
What are the 2 weaknesses of Natural Experiments?
A
- Extraneous variables may affect the results as you cannot randomly allocate participants to a condition.
- Rare events, as some conditions are hard to find.
11
Q
What is a quasi experiment?
A
A quasi experiment measures variables that aren’t directly manipulated by the experimenter, however, they are generally carried out in a lab setting. (such as in gender studies)
12
Q
What are the 2 advantages of a quasi experiment?
A
- Control, as the levels of extraneous variables are minimised, therefore, the experimenter is confident that the independent variable indeed affected the dependent variable.
- Replication, as there is strict control, meaning it is easier to replicate the study.
13
Q
What are the 2 disadvantages of a quasi experiment?
A
- Lacks ecological validity, as it takes place in an artificial setting and doesn’t reflect real life behaviour.
- Demand Characteristics, as participants may guess the aim of the experiment and respond accordingly.
14
Q
What is standardisation?
A
Standardisation is the process of using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study, improving the reliability of the study.
15
Q
What are confounding and extraneous variables?
A
Confounding Variables - Variables that interfere with the measuring of the dependent variable
Extraneous Variables - Variables that interfere with the measuring of the independent variable.
16
Q
What is independent groups design?
A
In independent groups design, different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable.
17
Q
What is repeated measures design?
A
Repeated measures design is when the same participants are used in each condition of the independent variable.
18
Q
What is matched pairs design?
A
Matched Pairs design is when there are different participants in each condition, however, they are matched on important variables, allowing comparisons to be easily made.
19
Q
What are control groups?
How does this help the researcher?
A
Control groups are groups which have not experienced any of the manipulations of the independent variable that the experimental groups may have.
This allows for the researcher to make a direct comparison with them to assess the imapct of the independent variable.
20
Q
What are the 2 strengths of independent groups design?
A
- No order effects, as there is no opportunity for participants to get better through practice or get worse through fatigue
- Low chance of demand characteristics, as they are less likely to guess the aim of the experiment.
21
Q
What are the 2 weaknesses of independent groups design?
A
- Participant Variables - differences between people in each group may affect the results.
- More participants required to obtain the same amount of data as repeated measures.
22
Q
What are the 2 strengths of repeated measures design?
A
- Less chances of participant variables, as the same people do the test in all conditions, so differences between individuals shouldn’t affect results.
- Fewer participants needed to get the same amount of data as independent groups design or matched pairs design.
23
Q
What are the 2 weaknesses of repeated measures design?
A
- Order effects, improvements in later conditions could be due to practice and deterioriation in later conditions could be due to fatigue.
- Greater risk of demand characteristics, as they are participating in more than one condition.
24
Q
What are the 2 strengths of matched pairs design?
A
- No order effects, as the participants are doing the condition once.
- Less chance of participant variables, as important differences are minimised through matching.
25
What are the 2 weaknesses of matched pairs design?
- Twice as many participants are required to get the same amount of data as repeated measures design.
- Can be impractical and time-consuming to find participants who match on key variables.
26
What is random allocation?
Random Allocation is an attempt to control participant variables in independent groups design.
This ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition than in the other.
27
What is counterbalancing?
Counterbalancing is an attempt to control order effects in repeated measures design.
This is when half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in another order.
28
What is a correlation?
What are positive and negative correlations?
A correlation refers to the strength and direction of two or more co-variables.
A positive correlation is when both variables increase or decrease. A negative correlation is when one variable decreases as the other increases.
29
What are the 3 strengths of correlations?
- They can be used as a starting point to assess possible patterns between variables and provide a tool for further study.
- They are quick and economical to carry out, as there is no need for a controlled environment or manipulation of variables.
- It can use secondary data (data not collected first hand), therefore making it less time consuming.
30
What are the 3 weaknesses of correlations?
- They do not establish a cause and effect, only a relationship.
- There may be a third variable which results in a correlation between the two other variables.
- They can be misinterpreted by the media, labelling correlation as causation although it may not be true.
31
What are the two types of correlational hypothesis?
One tailed (directional)
e.g. There is a positive correlation between the price of a chocolate bar and its tastiness rating.
Two tailed (non-directional)
e.g. There is a correlation between the price of a chocolate bar and its tastiness rating.
32
What is a naturalistic observation?
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of naturalistic observations?
A naturalistic observation takes place in a natural environment, where participants may be unaware that they are being observed.
Strengths:
- High ecological validity
- High external validity as it is done in a natural environment.
Weaknesses:
- Low control over extraneous variables, therefore making it difficult to replicate.
- Ethical issues, as participants may not be aware that they are being observed.
33
What is a controlled observation?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of controlled observations?
A controlled observation is about observing people in a controlled environment, such as in a lab setting.
Strengths:
- High level of control over extraneous variables, therefore making it easy to replicate.
Weaknesses:
- More likely to show demand characteristics, as participants know they are being observed.
34
What is a participant observation?
What are 2 strengths and 1 weaknesses of participant observations?
A participant observation is when the observer joins the group being observed, therefore observing themselves as well as the rest of the group.
Strengths:
- Can collect more detailed data
- The observer will have a good understanding of the group dynamics.
Weaknesses:
- May lose objectivity and become subjective in their views as they may identify too strongly with the participants.
35
What is a non-participant observation?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of non-participant observations?
In a non-participant observation, the observer is not a part of the group being observed.
Strengths:
- The observer is less likely to be biased as they are less likely to identify with the participants
Weaknesses:
- The observer may lose the actual meaning of the behaviour.
36
What is a overt observation?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of overt observations?
An overt observation is when the participants are aware that they are being observed.
Strengths:
- Ethical consent has been given
Weaknesses:
- Participants are very likely to show demand characteristics
37
What is a covert observation?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of covert observations?
A covert observation is one where participants are unaware they are being observed.
Strengths:
- Less likely to show demand charactersitics
Weaknesses:
- No consent is given, therefore ethical issues are presented.
38
What is a structured observation?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of structured observations?
In a structured observation, the researcher uses a predetermined check list to observe certain behaviours.
Strengths:
- Easier to gather data, as you know what you are looking for.
Weaknesses:
- Certain behaviours may go unrecorded as the researcher is not looking for them specifically.
39
What is an unstructured observation?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of unstructured observations?
An unstructued observation consists of continous recording where the researcher writes down everything they see in the observation.
Strengths:
- More likely to produce qualitative data that is detailed rather than numerical.
Weaknesses:
- May be more difficult to record and analyse.
40
What is event sampling?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of event sampling?
Event sampling involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group.
Strengths:
- Very useful when the event in question happens infrequently, causing it to be missed if time sampling was used.
Weaknesses:
- If the behaviour being observed is too complex, the observer may overlook important details.
41
What is time sampling?
What is a strength and 2 weaknesses of time sampling?
Time sampling is when behaviour is recorded in a pre-established time frame.
Strengths:
- It is less time consuming as it reduces the number of observations that has to be made.
Weaknesses:
- Important behaviours or events may be missed in between the time frames that aren't being observed.
- The small amount of data collected within the time frame may not be representative of the observation as a whole.
42
What is inter-observer reliability?
What does this overcome?
Inter-observer reliability is when the scores of all the observers correlate highly with each other.
This therefore overcomes observer bias and subjectivity.
43
What is a questionnaire?
What are the two types of questionnaires?
A questionnaire is a type of self report method. They assess a person's thoughts or experiences through a number of different written questions. There are two types of questionnaires:
- Closed question questionnaires: These are answered using a set number of responses (yes/no, scale from 1-5, etc). They generate quantitative data.
- Open question questionnaires: These are answered however the participant likes. They generate qualitative data.
44
What are the 3 strengths of questionnaires?
- Cheap
- You can obtain a large sample, therefore your results will be representative.
- They are quick and easy to perform and analyse.
45
What are the 2 weaknesses of questionnaires?
- People can easily lie, showing demand characteristics or social desirability bias.
- Cannot know if the target population it was intended for answered it, especially if it was online.
46
What are the 2 strengths and (1) weaknesses of open-quesition questionnaires?
Strengths:
- Answers are able to be detailed
- Allows researchers to gain an insight into participants feeling's and attitudes.
Weaknesses:
- Provides qualitative data, therefore it is more difficult to analyse.
47
What is a strength and 2 weaknesses of closed-quesition questionnaires?
Strengths:
- Collects quantitative data, therefore it is easy to analyse.
Weaknesses:
- Does not allow for depth or detail in answers.
- May lead to internal validity, as the participant may select options randomly for each question.
48
What are interviews?
Interviews are a type of self-report technique. They consist of questions being asked face to face between an interviewer and an interviewee.
49
What are structured interviews?
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of structured interviews?
Structured interviews involves a set of predetermined questions being asked during the interview.
Strengths:
- Quick and cost effective
- Easily replicable
Weaknesses:
- Not enough detail leading to limited analysis.
- May cause social desirability bias.
50
What are unstructured interviews?
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
Unstructured interviews consist of no predetermined questions, where questions are developed as the interview progresses.
Strengths:
- Data is collected in more depth and detail
- Builds rapport, increasing the relaxation and honesty of participants.
Weaknesses:
- Requires skilled interviewers
- May be time consuming, as participants could potentially go off topic.
51
What are semi-structured interviews?
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of semi-structured interviews?
Semi-structured interviews are interviews that consist of some open questions and some closed questions.
Strengths:
- Allows for the gathering of both qualitative and quantitative data.
Weaknesses:
- May cause interviewer bias.
52
What are clinical interviews?
Clinical interviews are interviews in which questions are based on the previous answer given.
53
What is 1 strength and 1 weakness of clinical interviews?
Strength:
- Provides a good insight into how the individual may be feeling.
Weakness:
- May be unethical, as the participant could feel uncomfortable when questioned so intensely.
54
What is the aim?
What should the aim state?
The aim of a study is a general statement made by the researcher describing the purpose of the study.
The aim should state if the study is:
- Test of difference: where you will need to manipulate the conditions of your study.
- Test of relationship: where you will measure the variables and not manipulate the study.
55
What is meant by the hypothesis?
What are experimental, alternative and null hypotheses?
The hypothesis of a study is a specific statement which clearly states the relationship between the variables being investigated.
- Experimental hypothesis (He) - when the researcher is carrying out an experiment with the Independent Value being manipulated and the Dependent Value being measured.
- Alternative hypothesis (Ha) - when two variables are being measured but not manipulated.
- Null hypothesis (Ho) - when there is no difference or correlation between two variables.
56
What are one-tailed and two-tailed hypotheses?
A one-tailed hypothesis is directional, therefore it states the specific relationship between two variables.
For example: 'The more sleep a participant has the better their memory performance'
A two-tailed test is non-directional, therefore it will claim that there is a relationship between two variables but does not state if it is positive/negative.
For example: 'There is a relationship between the amount of sleep a participant gets and their memory performance.'
57
What are demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics occur when the participant guesses the aim of the experiment, and therefore change their behaviour from how they would usually act in order to please the experimenter.
58
What is social desirability bias?
Social desirability bias refers to participants attempting to present themselves in a good light and therefore lying about themselves.
59
What are experimenter/investigator/researcher/interviewer effects?
Experimenter, investigator, researcher and interviewer effects all refer to situations where the person carrying out the study consciously or unconsciously influences the results they want to obtain.
60
What is observer bias?
Observer bias refers to situations where an observer's reports are biased by what they expect to see.
61
What are single and double blind conditions?
Why might researchers use these?
Single blind - A method in which the researchers do not tell the participants which group they are in. Researchers might use these to avoid demand characteristics
Double blind - A method in which neither the participants or the experimenter knows which group the participants are in. Researchers might use these to avoid demand characteristics and experimenter bias.
62
What are pilot studies?
How are these helpful?
Pilot studies are a small scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken.
These are useful in identifying potential problems to be identified early on, therefore saving money and time in the long run.
63
What are floor effects and ceiling effects?
Floor effects occur when a task is too hard, therefore none of the participants achieve high scores or are able to complete the task.
Ceiling effects occur when a task is too easy, therefore all of the participants achieve high scores.
64
What is random sampling?
What is a strength and weakness of random sampling?
Random sampling is when every member of a target population has an equal chance of being selected to be in a sample.
For example, a random sample could be obtained by picking names out of a hat or by selecting a random number.
Strength:
- No researcher bias, as everyone has an equal chance of being selected.
Weaknesses:
- Could be time consuming if there is a large population.
65
What is opportunity sampling?
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling involves taking a sample of participants who are available and willing to take part.
Strengths:
- Easy method of recruitment, therefore saving time and money.
- No ethical issues, as the participant is willing to take part.
Weaknesses:
- Researcher bias is presented, as they can choose who they want to select.
- Unlikely to be representative of the target population, as not everyone is willing to take part.
66
What is systematic sampling?
What are 2 strengths and 1 weakness of systematic sampling?
Systematic sampling takes a sample of every nth person (e.g. every 3rd or 5th person) from the sampling frame. This number is applied consistently.
Strengths:
- Easy to do, as a computer can do it for you.
- Avoids researcher bias, as the researcher cannot choose the participants they want in their sample.
Weaknesses:
- Could result in an unrepresentative sample.
67
What is volunteer sampling?
What are 2 strengths and a weakness of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer sampling occurs when people put themselves forward to take part in a study, usually as a response to advertisments.
Strengths:
- Ethical, as the participants have chosen themselves.
- Participants in these studies are more likely to co-operate.
Weaknesses:
- May lead to a biased sample, as volunteer sampling may attract a particular profile of person.
68
What is stratified sampling?
What is a strength and weakness of stratified sampling?
Stratified sampling is when participants are chosen according to their proportion within the target population, in which they are then chosen randomly.
Strengths:
- Representative of the target population
Weaknesses:
- Time consuming
69
What is deception?
What are the British Psychological Society's ethical guidlines regarding deception?
Deception occurs either when a researcher directly lies to participants (active deception) or when they withhold information from them (passive deception).
The British Psychological Society states that deception should be avoided wherever possible and only used where it is scientifically justified.
70
What is informed consent?
What are the British Psychological Society's ethical guidlines regarding informed consent?
Informed consent refers to a participant agreeing to take part in a study knowing what the procedure and aim is.
The British Psychological Society states that participants should be given all information needed to decide whether they wish to participate or not; they should not be pressured into it. Parents should give informed consent on behalf of any child participants.
71
What is protection from harm?
What are the British Psychological Society's ethical guidlines regarding protection from harm?
Protection from harm states that it is the role of the researcher to ensure that participants are protected from any physical and psycholical harm.
The British Psychological Society states that any risk of harm should be no greater than what a participant may experience in real life.
72
What is confidentialtiy and privacy?
Confidentiality refers to the right given to participants of the protection of any personal data, and their right to remain anonymous.
Privacy refers to the right that participants have to control how much information about themselves is released and used.
73
What are the three types of consent a researcher may present?
- Presumtive consent: gathering opinions from a group like the participants (but not actually the participants), therefore allowing demand characteristics to be eliminated.
- Prior general consent: where participants give permission beforehand to take part in a number of studies, some of which may involve deception.
- Retrospective consent: where participants are asked for consent during debriefing having already taken part in the study.
74
How can researchers deal with the issues of deception?
After the study, participants should be debreifed, where the true nature of the study must be given and what their data is for. They should also be given the right to withdraw their results.
75
What is peer review?
What are the 3 main purposes of peer review?
Peer review is the process by which psychological research papers, before publication, are subjected to assessment by others in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality.
Peer review can be performed:
- To assess if it deserves funding
- To validate the quality and relevancy of research
- To suggest amendments or improvements.
76
What are 3 criticisms of peer review?
- It isn't always possible to find an expert to review a research project.
- Not objective, as some reviewers may judge unfairly against fellow psychologists out of hatred, especially if they are competing for resources
- Theories that oppose mainstream theories may be suppressed, therefore slowing down the rate of change in scientific fields.
77
How has research into psychopathology affected the economy?
Research into psychopathology has lead to treatments for mental illnesses such as depression and OCD, therefore, more people were able to return to work.
78
How has research into attachment affected the economy?
Research into attachment has found that fathers are able to take on the role of being the primary caregiver. Because of this, more flexible working arrangements can be settled within families, and mothers can return to work.
79
How has research into social influence affected the economy?
Research into social influence has found that minority influence can lead to social change. This has lead to campaigns, such as union strike - making working conditions better, and environmental campaigns reducing waste and use of non-renewable energy.
80
How has research into memory affected the economy?
Research memory has shown that leading questions can affect eyewitness testimony. This has led to police using the cogntive interview, therefore reducing wrongful convictions and waste of money and space in jail.
81
What is meant by qualitative data?
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of qualitative data?
Qualitative data is non-numerical data collected in words.
Strengths:
- Rich and deep in detail
- Can allow for the generation of new hypothesis.
Weakness:
- Can be difficult to analyse.
- Can be seen as subjective.
82
What is quantitative data?
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of quantitative data?
Quantitative data refers to data that is expressed numerically rather than in words.'
Strengths:
- Easly to analyse statistically
- Data is objective and free from bias
Weaknesses:
- Lack of depth and detail
- May not be representative of real life, as there is no room for participants to develop their opinions.
83
What is primary data?
Primary data refers to data that has been collected first hand by the researcher.
84
What is secondary data?
Secondary data refers to data that has been collected by someone else other than the person who is conducting the research.
85
What is a meta-analysis?
A meta-analysis is a research method that uses secondary data. This is when data is formed from many different studies, therefore forming an overall view on the subject they are investigating.
86
What is a strength and weakness of meta-analysis?
Strength:
- It allows us to view data with much more confidence, therefore results can be gathered across much of the larger population.
Weakness:
- May be prone to the 'file-drawer problem'. This is when the researcher may not choose studies with negative or non-significant results to appear in the overall analysis.
87
What are measures of central tendency?
What are the 3 types of measures of central tendency?
Measures of central tendency refer to any measure which calculates an average value within a set of data. The 3 types of measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode.
88
What is the mean?
What is a strength and weakness of using the mean?
The mean is a measure of central tendency. It is calculated by adding up all the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.
Strength:
- It takes all the values into account
Weakness:
- It can be influenced by anomolies/outliers.
89
What is the median?
What are 2 strengths and 1 weakness of using the median?
The median is a measure of central tendency. It is calculated by putting every score in ascending order and seeing the middle number.
Strengths:
- Quick and easy
- Not affected by extreme scores.
Weaknesses:
- Does not take all the scores into account
90
What is the mode?
What is a strength and weakness for using the mode?
The mode is a measure of central tendency. It refers to the score that occurs most frequently.
Strengths:
- Easy to find
Weaknesses:
- Not useful when there are several modes
91
What are measures of dispersion?
What are the two types of measures of dispersion?
Measures of dispersion refer to the spread of scores and how scores vary from one another.
The two types of measures of dispersion are range and standard deviation?
92
What is the range?
What is a strength and weakness for using the range?
The range is a measure of dispersion. It refers to the difference between the lowest score and the highest.
Strength:
- Easy to calculate
Weaknesses:
- Does not show the frequency of scores.
93
What is the standard deviation?
What is a strength and weakness for using the standard deviation?
Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion. It represents how deviated from the mean the values are. It is calculated by finding the square root of the variance.
Strength:
- Precise measure, taking all values into consideration
Weakness:
- Difficult to calcualte
94
What are the three features of a normal distribution?
- The curve is symmetrical
- The curve is bell-shaped
- The mean, median and mode are the same
95
What are positive and negative skews?
A positive skew is when most of the distribution of the data is concentrated on the right. Therefore, the bell curve peaks towards the left.
A negative skew is when most of the distribution of the data is concentrated on the left. Therefore, the bell curve peaks towards the right.
96
What is content analysis?
Content analysis is a technique for analysing qualitative data and converting it into quantitative data for statistical analysis. This is done through coding, which refers to the categories in which the data is classified in.
97
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of content analysis?
Strengths:
- High ecological validity, as it is based on observations on what people actually do.
- Reliable, as sources can be accessed by others, and therefore reliable.
Weaknesses:
- Researchers can be biased when putting the behaviours into categories.
- Cultural differences can contribute to inconsistent interpretation of behaviour.
98
What is thematic analysis?
Thematic analysis is a technique which helps to analyse themes throughout qualitative data. The result of this is more qualitative data which is much more refined.
99
What is a strength and weakness of thematic analysis?
Strength:
- High ecological validity, as conclusions are based on real life behaviour.
Weakness:
- Findings can be subjective, as the researcher may interpret things in their own way.
100
What are case studies?
Case studies are instances of a detailed analysis on an individual, establishment or real-life event. Examples of case studies include Little Hans and Little Albert.
101
What are 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of case studies?
Strengths:
- Provides unique insights into different situations.
- Can be used in situations which would not be ethical to examine experimentally.
Weaknesses:
- It is difficult to generalise the findings to the wider world, as case studies only analyse a particular individual or group of people,
- The subjectivity of the researcher may pose a problem.
102
What is the test-retest method?
The test-retest method is a way to measure reliability.
In this method, the same participants undergo the same research procedure on different occasions. If the different occasions are too close, participants may recall their actions, and if they are too far apart, their views may have changed.
If the correlation between different scores are significant, then the test is said to have good reliability.
103
How may reliability be improved in questionnaires, interviews, experiments and observations?
Questionnaires: Remove or rewrite questions with the biggest impact on relaibility
Interviews: Ensure the same interviewer is conducting all interviews and they do not ask ambiguous or leading questions.
Experiments: Follow standardised procedures, take control over extraneous variables.
Observations: Ensure behavioural categories are operationalised (categories are unquestionable and measureable).
104
What is internal and external validity?
Internal validity refers to the extent to which results in an experiment are obtained solely due to the manipulation of the independent varaible and not any other factor.
External validity is a measure of whether data can be generalised to other situations outside the research environment.
105
What is ecological validity?
What is temporal validity?
What is population validity?
Ecological, temporal and population validity are all examples of external validity.
Ecological validity - Refers to the extent to which findings from can be applied to other settings.
Temporal validity - Refers to the extent to which findings can be applied across time.
Population validity - Refers to the extent to which ressearch can be applied to different groups of people.
106
What is face and concurrent validity?
Face validity and concurrent validity are methods of assessing the validity of a test.
Face validity refers to whether the test appears to measure what it is supposed to.
Concurrent validity refers to the extent to which a psychological measure compares to an already existing measure.
107
How may validity be improved in questionnaires, experiments and observations?
Questionnaires: Incorporate a lie scale to control for the effects of social desirability bias.
Experiments: Use a control group, single/double blind procedures and/or standardised instructions
Observations: Ensure observations are covert (participants are unaware they are being observed) to avoid demand characteristics.
108
What is objectivity?
Objectivity is a key feature of science. This is when facts are dealt with in a way that is unaffected by any personal biases.
109
What is the empirical method?
Empirical methods are a key feature of science. This is when evidence is collected through making direct observations and through direct experiences.
110
What is replicability?
Replicability is a key feature of science. It refers to the extent to which scientific methods and their results can be repeated by other researchers across other contexts and circumstances.
111
What is falsifiability?
Falsifiability is a key feature of science. Karl Popper states that a theory is unable to be considered scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue. If falsification cannot be achieved, the theory could not have derived from a true scientific discipline.
112
What is theory construction?
A theory is a set of principles and laws that can be used to explain specific events or behaviours. Theory construction takes place through gathering evidence from direct observation during investigations.
113
What is deductive and inductive reasoning?
Deductive - first there is a theory, then a hypothesis. The theory is then tested, and conclusions are drawn from the data.
Inductive - a researcher observes a phenomenon first, then comes up with a hypothesis, which is tested and conclusions are drawn. From the conclusions, a theory is generated.
114
What is hypothesis testing?
Hypothesis testing is a key feature of science. This states how theories are developed and modified. A good theory should have testable predictions.
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What is a paradigm and a paradigm shift?
A paradigm is a key feature of science. Kuhn argues that this is what distinguishes scientific and non-scientific disciplines.
A paradigm refers to a shared set of assumptions and agreed methods that are found within scientific disciplines.
Kuhn argues that a paradigm shift is the result of a great scientific revolution, where a signficant change in the dominant theory occurs.
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What are the 7 stages in writing a psychological report?
1 - Title
2 - Abstract - a summary of all the key details in the research report. It is around 150-200 words long.
3 - Introduction - includes information on past research on a similar topic.
4 - Method - includes design, sample, apparatus, procedure and ethics.
5 - Results - findings from the study
6 - Discussion - involves summary, relationship to background research, limitations, implications and suggestions.
7 - References - a list of sources.
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What is meant by statistical significance?
Statistical significance refers to the level at which the decision is made to reject the null hypothesis in favour of the experimental hypothesis. In other words, it states how certain we are that the independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable and it is not due to chance.
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What is meant by chance?
Chance is when something has no real cause, it just happens.
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What are type I and II errors?
Type 1/False positive - We reject the null hypothesis and accept the experimental/alternative hypothesis.
Type II/False negative - We accept the null hypothesis in error
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What is nominal data?
What is a strength and weakness for nominal data?
Nominal data is in the form of categories. It is discrete, as 1 item appears in 1 category. An example of nominal data is the mode.
Strength:
- Can be generated easily and quickly, such as through closed questions.
Weakness:
- Data cannot be expressed in any complex ways. Furthermore, no measures of dispersion can be expressed nominally.
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What is ordinal data?
What is a strength and weakness for ordinal data?
Ordinal data refers to data represented in ranking form. There are no equal intervals in between each unit. Examples include the range and the median.
Strength:
- Provides more detail than nominal.
Weakness:
- Since intervals are not of equal value, the mean cannot be used.
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What is interval data?
What is a strength and weakness for interval data?
Interval data refers to data based on numerical scales which includes equal units of precisely defined size. Examples include the mean or standard deviation.
Strength:
- More informative
Weakness:
- The intervals may be arbritrary.
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When would a Chi Squared test be used?
- The test is non-parametric
- The data is nominal
- The test is either independent groups design or a test of correlation.
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When would a Sign test be used?
- The test is non-parametric
- The data is nominal
- The test is either repeated measures design or matched pairs design.
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When would a Mann Whitney U test be used?
- The test is non-parametric
- The data is ordinal
- The test is independent groups design.
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When would a Wilcoxon test be used?
- The test is non-parametric
- The data is ordinal
- The test is either repeated measures design or matched pairs design.
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When would a Spearman's Rho test be used?
- The test is non-parametric
- The data is ordinal
- The test is of correlation.
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When would a Unrelated T test be used?
- The test is parametric
- The data is interval
- The test is independent groups design.
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When would a Related T test be used?
- The test is parametric
- The data is interval
- The test is either repeated measures design or matched pairs design.
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When would a Pearson's R test be used?
- The test is parametric
- The data is interval
- The test is of correlation.
