Research Methods Flashcards
Describe what an experiment is.
experiments attempt to establish a cause and effect between the IV (what is manipulated) and the DV (what is measured). When extraneous variables (what could affect the DV) are uncontrolled they become confounding variables.
EXAMPLES -
Asch: variable changes (IV) and conformity (DV)
Peterson and Peterson: Interval task (IV) and memory (DV)
Loftus and Palmer: Critical question (IV) and speed estimate (DV)
Describe a lab experiment
Where the IV is manipulated and the DV is measured under controlled conditions to prevent confounding variables. Usually participants are usually aware they they are taking part in a study.
Evaluate Lab experiments
(+) High control over EVs increase internal validity which means we can asses the effects of the IV on the DV more accurately.
COUNTERPOINT (-) higher control could mean that ecological validity is lower due to the artificiality of the research, which means that it is harder to generalise findings.
(+) High control over lab experiments means that procedures are generally more replicable, this means that experiments can be repeated and therefore the reliability of findings can be checked.
What is a field experiment?
This is where a researcher manipulates the IV and measures a DV in natural conditions. The ‘field’ is considered any location that is not a laboratory, therefore sometimes PPs are not aware that they are in a study.
Evaluate field experiments.
(+) Natural settings means the ecological validity of the research increases, therefore behaviour exhibited in the experiments is more likely to reflect how individuals would behave in real life.
(-) Because experiments are not conducted in a lab setting, this often means that there is low control over extraneous variables, this therefore lowers the internal validity of the study as we cannot be certain that it is the effect of the IV on the DV, instead extraneous variables may be confounding the results.
What is a natural experiment?
Researcher measure effect of IV on DV however they have no control over the IV and cannot change/manipulate it. For example a natural disaster.
Evaluate natural experiments.
(+) Studying real life issues and event means high levels of external validity, specifically ecological validity meaning they will have real world application.
(+) Naturally occurring IVs mean things that can be studied that would
otherwise be unethical to research.
COUNTERPOINT - However there are ethical issues that arise in these experiments as participants who are not aware they are taking part in a psychological experiments cannot give informed consent, meaning a full debrief afterwards is required.
(-) A naturally occurring event can be rare, this reduces the opportunities for research and limits how much findings can be applied to real life.
(-) Participants may not be able to be randomly allocated to experimental conditions if an independent groups design is used. For examples in the study of Romanian orphans, the IV was whether the kids were adopted early or late however there were lots of differences between these groups.
What is a covert observation?
where participants are not aware they are being observed.
What is an overt observation?
where participants are aware they are being observed.
evaluate covert observations.
(+) Investigator effects are unlikely as they are not aware they are being observed, meaning that participants’ behaviour will be genuine.
(-) Less ethical as participants are not aware they are taking part and cannot give fully informed consent.
What is a participant observation?
This is when the observer also takes part in the activity being observed
What us a non-participant observation?
This is when the observer does not take part in the activity being observed, instead they watch from a distance
Evaluate participant observations
(+) closer proximity to participants provides verstehen, a real and empathic insight into one’s subject. It also adds some of the advantages of interviews (especially group interviews) as the researcher can probe people for explanations or further information.
(-) people are likely to change their behaviour and so what is being observed might be very different from what would have occurred without the researcher being present
Evaluate non-participant observations
(-) Hawthorne Effect - people are likely to change their behaviour because they are aware that they are being observed, can be overcome with a covert observation
(+ )allows for a more objective view of what is occurring.
What is a controlled observation?
observation takes place in a lab-style setting
What is an uncontrolled observation?
observation takes place in an unaltered setting in which the observer does not interfere in any way.
Evaluate a controlled observation
(+) high control means replicability is possible as the researcher is in control of variables and therefore can repeat the method as they wish
(-) but it also means lower ecological validity as the researcher records behaviours in an artificial (manipulated) environment, with potential outside interference from the researcher.
Describe how observers can gather data from observations
Time Sampling: where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals
Event Sampling: where an observer records the number of times that the target behaviour occurs.
Evaluate the ways in which observers can gather data from observations
Time sampling methods allow for a better use of time since fewer observations are made. However, not every behaviour of relevance to
the investigation will be counted if it occurs in between the time frames allocated.
Event sampling means that every behaviour of interest to the researcher will be counted. However, some behaviours could be missed
if there is too much happening at the same time, resulting in some not being coded
Self report techniques - what is a questionnaire?
Written surveys that measure attitudes or opinions on something. They can be
made up of closed ( predetermined responses for respondents to choose from) and/or open ( no predetermined responses so respondents can offer as much detail as they want) questions.
Self report techniques - what is an interview
Questions that are verbally asked by an interviewer and answered to an interviewee. They generally use open questions and gather
qualitative data
Describe the different types of interviews
Structured: All interviewees are asked the same questions. There is no room for additional avenues to be explored. E.g. a formal job interview
Semi-Structured: There are some set questions prepared by the interviewer, but areas of interest can be followed up. E.g. a therapist session
Unstructured: The interviewer prepares one or two questions but the interview snowballs naturally. E.g. a radio interview
Evaluate questionnaires as a self report technique
(+) Closed questions are easy and quicker to analyse and can be analysed statistically. However, they do not generate in-depth
responses.
(-)Open questions generate in-depth data, but this is hard and timeconsuming to analyse.
(-) Gathering completed questionnaires can be time-consuming.
(-) Participants may want to appear socially desirable in responses.
(+)Better than interviews since they can be completed confidentially.
Evaluate interviews as a self report technique
(+) Qualitative data is gathered, so it is rich in detail and interviewees can offer elaboration in their answers, however, this makes it hard to
analyse.
(-) Participants may want to appear socially desirable in their responses.
(+) Better than questionnaires since interviewees can ask for questions to
be repeated or rephrased if they are stuck.
(+) Interviews can gather information about body language, whereas questionnaires cannot.
(-) Structured interviews are standardised (easily replicable), but other interviews will need to be conducted by a trained interviewe
