research methods Flashcards
(138 cards)
1
Q
what is an aim
A
a statement of what the researchers aim to investigate
2
Q
what is the independent variable
A
what the researcher changes or manipulates- so the effect of the DV can be measured
3
Q
what is a dependant variable
A
the variable in the situation that is measured by the researcher, and should be caused by the independent variable
4
Q
what does operationalisation mean
A
being able to define variables in order to manipulate the IV to measure the DV
-this is when you make sure that all variables are in a form that can be easily tested e.g. cleverness= IQ scores
5
Q
what is a hypothesis
A
a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study
6
Q
what is a one tailed directional hypothesis
A
predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependant variable
e.g. adults WILL correctly recall MORE words than the children
7
Q
what is a two tailed directional hypothesis
A
predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV, but the direction of the effect is not specified
e.g. there WILL be a DIFFERENCE in how many words are correctly recalled by children and adults
8
Q
what is a null hypothesis
A
a statement of no difference- the IV does not affect the DV
e.g. there will be no difference between the IQ of females and males
9
Q
what are extraneous variables
A
a variable (which is not the IV) but could affect the DV if it is not controlled
- if they can’t be controlled the research cannot be sure of cause and effect relationships
10
Q
what are the possible extraneous variables
A
-demand characteristics
-investigator effects
-situational variables
-participant variables
11
Q
what are demand characteristics
A
in an experiment pp’s are often unsure on what to do, they actually look for clues as to how they should behave in that situation. if pp’s know/guess the experimentations they may change their behaviour accordingly
12
Q
how do we control demand characteristics
A
single blind design- pp is unaware of which condition they are in or the researchers aims, this prevents the pp from seeking clues about the aims and reacting to them
deception- lying about the aims of the study and/or using distraction techniques
13
Q
what are investigator effects
A
any cues from the investigator that encourage certain behaviours in the participant e.g. asking them leading questions
14
Q
what are indirect investigator effects
A
the measurement of the variables may be carried out in a way which makes the desired outcome more likely
15
Q
how do we control investigator effects
A
randomisation- use of chance methods to reduce the researchers unconscious bias e.g. a word lists order being randomly decided by a generator not the researcher
double blind design- both the pp and the person conducting the experiment are blind to the aims and/or hypothesis. also the experimenter may be unaware which variable the pp was involved in
inter-rater reliability- independent raters rate same behaviour as researcher (check for agreement)
16
Q
what are situational variables
A
variables that may influence pp’s behaviour e.g. order effects, time of day
17
Q
how do we control situational variables
A
standardise- keep everything the same for each pp
•standardised procedure
•standardised instructions
counterbalancing- controls order effect
18
Q
what are participant variables
A
refers to the individual characteristics that can influence how a participant responds in an experiment e.g. age, background, gender, mood
19
Q
how can we control participant variables
A
consider your experimental design- independent groups, repeated measures, matched pairs
control in independent group design- random allocation
20
Q
what are confounding variables
A
variables that the researcher failed to control, or eliminate, damaging the internal validity of the experiment. this is when changes in the DV may be due to the confounding variables rather than the IV
21
Q
what is an experimental design
A
the different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
22
Q
what does it mean if the experimental design includes ‘repeated measures’
A
the same participants take part in all conditions of the IV
23
Q
what are the strengths and weaknesses of repeated measures
A
+ eliminates participant variables
+ fewer participants needed, so not ad time consuming finding and using them
X order effects presented e.g. boredom may mean in second condition, the participant does not do as well
24
Q
what is a solution for repeated measures
A
counterbalance
-when half of the participants do conditions in one order and the other half do it in an opposite order
25
what does it mean if the experimental design includes ‘independent groups’
the participants only perform in one condition of the independent variable
26
what are the strengths and weaknesses of independent groups
+ no order effects present
+ participants are less likely to guess the aims of the study (demand characteristics are eliminated)
X no control over participant variables, whereby different abilities of participants in the various conditions can cause changes to the dependent variable
X you need more participants than other designs to gather the same amount of data
27
what is a solution for independent groups design
random allocation- solves the first limitation mentioned. this is as it ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition of the IV as another
28
what does it mean if the experimental design includes ‘matched pairs’
pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that has been found to affect the DV, then one member of each pair does one condition and the other does another
29
what are the strengths and weaknesses of matched pairs
+ no order effects
+ demand characteristics are less of a problem
X time consuming and expensive to match participants
X a large pool of potential participants are needed which can be hard to get
X difficult to which variables are appropriate for the participants to be matched
30
what is a pilot study
small scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken
-carried out to allow potential problems of the study to be identified and the procedure to be modified to deal with these
-allows money and time to be saved in the long run
31
single blind procedure
a research method in which the researchers do not tell the participants if they are given a test treatment or a control treatment
-this is done to ensure that participants do not bias the results by acting in 'ways' they think they should act- avoids demand characteristics
32
double blind procedure
a researcher procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenter knows who is receiving a particular treatment
-used to prevent bias in research results. prevents bias due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect. also gives a way to reduce investigator effects as the investigator is unable to unconsciously give participants clues to which condition that they are in
33
what is a lab experiment
an experiment conducted in a specifically designed and controlled environment
-the IV is manipulated to observe the effect on DV
34
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a lab experiment
STRENGTH- good control over variables (increases reliability and replicability)
STRENGTH- high internal validity because extraneous variables are controlled
WEAKNESS- lacks external validity (artificial)
WEAKNESS- lacks mundane realism (task does not match real life)
WEAKNESS- demand characteristics and experimenter effects
35
what is a field experiment
an experiment conducted in more natural surroundings
-IV is directly manipulated by the experiment or to observe the effect on DV, some control
36
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment
STRENGTH- higher ecological validity, more natural setting
STRENGTH- experimenter effects are reduced
STRENGTH- easily replicated
WEAKNESS- less control over variables
WEAKNESS- may have demand characteristics still (due to IV being operationalised)
37
what is a natural experiment
an experiment that takes advantage of the fact that the variable of interest (the IV) varies naturally, so we can observe the effects of this on the DV
38
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a natural experiment
STRENGTH- highest ecological validity
STRENGTH- can study real problems without ethical issues (e.g. crime)
WEAKNESS- lowest control of variables
WEAKNESS- casual conclusions can’t be drawn (extraneous variables)
39
what is a quasi experiment
when the IV is naturally occurring and is the difference between people that exist
40
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a quasi experiment
STRENGTH- shares strengths with lab studies e.g. replicability
WEAKNESS- confounding variables as no random allocation
WEAKNESS- same as natural (casual conclusions can’t be drawn- extraneous variables)
41
what is a population
the large group of people that the researcher is interested in studying e.g. uni students from the SW
42
what is a sample
smaller group within the population is selected to participate in the study
43
what is generalisation
the sample should be representative of the population, so generalisation can be made
44
what is sample bias
majority of samples are biased in that certain groups may be over or under represented
45
what is a random sample
all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
-target population is selected and all the names are listed before being given a number, the sample is then generated through the use of a lottery method that is free from researcher bias
46
what are the strengths and weaknesses of random sampling
STRENGTH- free from researcher bias
STRENGTH- researcher has no influence over who is selected and this prevents them from choosing people who they think may support their hypothesis
WEAKNESS- difficult and time consuming to conduct
WEAKNESS- may end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative
47
what is systematic sampling
where every nth number of the target population is selected. a sampling frame is produced e.g. alphabetical order
48
what is the strength of systematic sampling
STRENGTH- avoids researcher bias, also fairly representative
49
what is stratified sampling
where pp’s are selected according to their frequency in the target population. sub groups are identified e.g. she or gender
50
what are the strengths and weaknesses of stratified sampling
STRENGTH- avoids researcher bias
WEAKNESS- cannot reflect all the ways people are different
51
what are observational techniques
a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them
-often used in an experiment as a way of assessing the DV
52
what are the strengths and weaknesses of observational techniques
STRENGTH- can capture unexpected behaviour as they are given an insight into spontaneous behaviour, whereas in self report methods people often act differently to how they say they will
WEAKNESS- observer bias, researchers interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations. bias can be reduced by using more than one observer
53
what is a naturalistic observation
studying the spontaneous behaviour of participants in natural surroundings (unstructured observation)
-researcher records everything they see, in whatever way they can
-e.g. in a classroom
54
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a naturalistic observation
STRENGTH- high external validity, in a natural context behaviour is more likely to be spontaneous, so more generalisable to everyday life
WEAKNESS- may be uncontrolled extraneous variables, makes it more difficult to detect patterns
WEAKNESS- ethical issues as participants aren’t told
55
what is a controlled observation
when there is some control/manipulation over variables including control of extraneous variables
-likely to be carried out in a lab
56
what is a controlled observation
when there is some control/manipulation over variables including control of extraneous variables
-likely to be carried out in a lab
57
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a controlled observation
STRENGTH- can be replicated, due to standardised procedures. allows findings to be checked to see if they occur again
STRENGTH- more control over extraneous variables
WEAKNESS- may have low external validity, behaviour may be shown as a result of the setting, findings cannot be applied to everyday life
WEAKNESS- higher chance of demand characteristics
58
what is a covert observation
under cover, participants are unaware that they are being observed
59
what are the strengths and weakness of a covert observation
STRENGTH- demand characteristics reduced, pp’s don’t know they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural, this increases the validity of the findings
WEAKNESS- ethically questionable, people may not want their behaviour recorded, pp’s right to privacy may be affected
60
what is an overt observation
where participants know they are being studied
61
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a overt observation
STRENGTH- more ethically acceptable, participants have given consent to be studied, they also have the right to withdraw if they wish
WEAKNESS- reduces validity, due to demand characteristics. knowledge of being studied influences behaviour
62
what is a participant observation
when the researcher becomes part of the group they are observing. more natural arrangement, however it is difficult to take notes when you’re joining in.
63
what are the strengths and weaknesses of participant observation
STRENGTH- can lead to a greater insight as the researcher experiences the situation as the participant did. this enhances the validity of the findings
STRENGTH- less demand characteristics
WEAKNESS- possible loss of objectivity, the researcher may identify too strongly with those who they are studying, this threatens the objectivity and validity of the findings
64
what is a non participant observation
this involves observing the participant without actively participating. the researcher remains separate from the group
65
what are the strengths and weaknesses of non participant observations
STRENGTH- more objective, researcher maintains an objective distance so less chance of bias. may increase the validity of the findings
STRENGTH- more control
WEAKNESS- loss of insight, researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying, this may reduce the validity of the findings
66
what are behavioural categories
the target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories
67
what are the weaknesses of behavioural categories
WEAKNESS- difficult to make clear and unambiguous. categories should be self evident and not overlap, this isn’t always possible to achieve. ‘smiling’ and ‘grinning’ would be poor categories
WEAKNESS- dustbin categories, all forms of behaviour should be in the list and not one ‘dustbin’. ‘dumped’ behaviours go unrecorded
68
what is time sampling
involves observations at set lengths of time at set intervals
69
what are the strengths and weaknesses of time sampling
STRENGTH- greater chance of sampling the behaviour of how a variety of different people act in regards to the subject being studied, so more representative
STRENGTH- reduces the number of observations
WEAKNESS- more time consuming as you have to watch the behaviour over set time intervals
WEAKNESS- may be unrepresentative
70
what is event sampling
involves observing a particular behaviour and recording every time that behaviour occurs
71
what are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling
STRENGTH- useful when behaviour to be recorded only happens occasionally and might be missed if TS was used
WEAKNESS- observer may miss some observations
WEAKNESS- the sample you choose may not be representative as your only watching over one event and not at intervals
72
what are the two ways of recording data
structured and unstructured
73
what are the two ways of recording data
structured and unstructured
74
what is unstructured recording of data
where the researcher may want to record everything they see
75
what are the strengths and weaknesses of unstructured recording of data
STRENGTH- more rich in depth data
WEAKNESS- qualitative data, so harder to analyse
WEAKNESS- risk of observer bias, may only observe behaviours that ‘catch their eye’
76
what is a structured way of recording data
when the researcher uses a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling methods
77
what are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured recording of data
STRENGTH- numerical data, so easier to analyse
WEAKNESS- do not get as rich data
78
what is inter observer reliability
this is when studies should be carried out by atleast 2 researchers to avoid researcher bias
-information is then compared to check for consistency, therefore increasing reliability
79
what is content analysis
type of observational research where people are studied indirectly via their communications
-it’s a technique for analysing qualitative data
-data can be placed into categories and counted (quantitative) or can be analysed in themes (qualitative)
-usually carried out on secondary data
80
how to conduct a content analysis
-identify a hypothesis that you will investigate
-create a coding system depending on what you are investigating e.g. 1=males, 2=females
-gather resources
-conduct content analysis and record data in a table
-analyse data which is descriptive and qualitative e.g. using thematic analysis- allows themes, patterns and trends to emerge in data
-write up a report in the format of a scientific report
81
what are the strengths and weaknesses of content analysis
STRENGTH- high in reliability as it follows systematic procedures to be replicated
STRENGTH- can produce quantitative and qualitative data as required. this flexibility means it can be adapted to suit the research aims
WEAKNESS- hard to decide on appropriate categories
WEAKNESS- cannot establish cause as it merely describes the data, so it can’t extract any deeper meaning or explanation for the data patterns arising from
82
what are the four ethical issues
informed consent
deception
protection from harm
privacy & confidentiality
83
what is informed consent
makes participants aware of the aims, procedures and their rights before the study goes ahead
84
how do we deal with informed consent
-all pp’s should sign a consent form
-parental consent for this u16
-presumptive consent (ask a similar group of people)
85
what is deception
delicately misleading or withholding information from participants makes informed consent impossible
86
how do we deal with deception
debrief participants at the end (inform them of what happened, what their data will be used for and allow opportunities to withdraw their data)
87
what is protection from harm
participants should not be placed at any more risk than normal daily life- this includes embarrassment/stress
88
how do we deal with protection from harm
reassure participants that their behaviour was normal
-follow up
-after counselling if effects are extreme
89
what is privacy and confidentiality
privacy- participants have the right to control information about themselves
confidentiality- having personal data protected
90
how do we deal with privacy and confidentiality
maintain anonymity, don’t record names (use numbers)
don’t share data with other researchers
91
what should consent forms include
-purpose of study -outline of procedure -length of time of study -right to withdraw -medical supervision available -tick boxes -understood the term - any questions -consent to participate
•signed and dated
92
what are questionares
a self report method where respondents give their opinions and thoughts.
-written format with a set number of questions
-usually carried out in the participants natural environment
-can be carried out online or with the researcher on paper
93
what do questionares use
-closed questions have a fixed range of answers and produce quantitative data
-open questions where pp's can write about their thoughts and feelings to the question in words and they do not have a fixed range of answers. this produces qualitative
94
what are the strengths and limitations of questionares
+ can gather large amounts of data quickly
+doesn't need the researcher present, this means there are less chance of researcher bias
+same questions being answered, which means that it is standerdised
X answers may not be truthful, which indicated demand characteristics
X people may not complete them, risk of small sample size.
95
red herrings
these are there to try and distract the respondent from the aim. these are questions that relate to the topic but are not directly being measured (e.g. looking at gender differences you may ask about their age and location, to hide that you are looking at gender)
96
what are pilot studies
a small scale trial run of the actual investigation
-involves a handful of participants and checks the study runs smoothly
-tries the study in advance to make sure it works
-for questionares, it looks for potential issues with the questions
97
what are interviews
a form of self report, as respondents are giving their own thoughts and opinions
-face to face of asking questions and recording answers
-take place in a quiet room, interviewer can make notes or it can be recorded. recorded interviews need to be transcribed
-tend to collect qualitative data as all 'open questions' are used
98
what are the three different types of interviews that can be conducted
unstructured interview, structured interview, semi structured interview
99
unstructured interviews
questions are open and the interview is flexible. there are no set questions followed and questions are based on previous answers
100
structured interviews
pre set of questions for every respondent, there is little room for the researcher to follow up answers of interest
101
semi structured interviews
schedule of questions to be followed but the interviewer can follow up some responses
102
what is an interview schedule
list of questions they intend to cover to avoid interviewer bias
-interviews are typically one to one, however you can have group interviews
103
strengths and weaknesses of structured interviews
+ they use standerdised questions, which are the same for every respondent, therefore high in validity
+ easy to compare and same questions reduces differences between interviewers
X interviewer bias, there may be differential reactions to the answers and personality of interviewers. set questions may also have bias in.
X socially desirable answers, people may respond to what society accepts, not what they truly think or feel
104
strengths and weaknesses of unstructured interviews
+ can ask questions on response of the answer, which increases validity
+ gives flexibility and freedom, can adjust based on the personality of the person, this gives the interview validity
X socially desirable answers- people may respond to what society accepts, not what they truly think or feel
X interviewer bias, as you have the freedom to ask what you like, so could be bias in this
X analysis may be difficult as questions and answers could be too diverse
105
strengths and weaknesses of semi-structured interviews
+ some standerdised questions- partially reliable
+ can delve into answers with other questions- increases validity
X socially desirable answers- people may respond to what society accepts, not what they truly think or feel
X interviewer bias, as you have some freedom to ask what you like, so there could be bias
106
why are questionares better than interviews
-can gain large sample size
-more cost effective than interviews
-same questions used for all questionares, makes it standerdised
107
why are interviews better than questionares
-can build rapport
-can read body language on response to gain more information
-rich and in depth answers, as mostly open questions used
108
what are correlations
a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between co-variables
109
what is a correlation coefficient
a number between -1 and +1 that represents the direction and strength of a relationship between co-variables
110
negative correlation
when one variable increases, the other decreases
-when the data is presented on a scattergram the line of best fit has a negative gradient
-it has a correlation coefficient of less than 0
111
positive correlation
when one variable increases the other decreases
-when the data is presented on a scattergram the line of best fit has a positive gradient
-it has a correlation coefficient of more than 0
112
zero correlation
no relationship is found between the co-variables
-when the data is presented on a scattergram, no line of best fit can be drawn as the points are random
-it has a correlation coefficient equal to 0
113
evaluation of correlations
+ they can be used as starting points to assess patterns between co-variables before committing to conducting an experimental study
+ quick and economical to carry out
X difficult to establish a cause & effect relationship, really only an association is found
X chance that there is a third variable present that is responsible for the relationship between the co-variables
114
ao1 and a03 of qualitative data
data which is displayed in words
+more richness and depth of detail
+allows participants to further develop their opinions hence has greater external validity
X difficult to analyse
X difficult to make comparisons with other data
115
ao1 and ao3 of quantitative data
data that is displayed numerically
+can be analyzed statistically, so can be converted to graphs or charts
+ makes it easy to compare with other sets of data
X lack of depth in detail
X as participants are not able to develop their opinions, the results have low external validity
116
ao1 and ao3 of primary data
when information is obtained first hand by the researcher for an investigation
+ targets the exact information which the researcher needs so the data fits with their aims and objectives
X requires time and effort
X can be expensive
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ao1 and ao3 of secondary data
when information is collected by someone else other than the researcher yet is used by the researcher for their information
+expensive
+data is accessed so requires minimal effort to collect
X may be likely that the data is outdated or incomplete
X data may not be reliable, the researcher was not there when the study was conducted so is likely to be unsure of the validity of the results
118
ao1 and ao3 of meta-analysis
this is when a researcher combines the results from many different studies
+more generalisability is possible as a larger amount of data is studied
+the researcher is able to view the evidence with more confidence as there is a lot of it
X publication bias may be presented. this is when the researcher intentionally does not publish all of the data from the relevant studies but instead chooses to leave out the negative results
119
what are measures of central tendency
any measure which calculates an average value within a set of data
-mean
-median
-mode
120
how to calculate the mean & ao3
total of all values in a set of data is divided by the number of values
+ makes use of all values
+ good for interval data
X it is influenced by outliers (extreme scores) so it can be unrepresentative
121
how to calculate the median & ao3
arrange data from lowest to highest then find the central value
+ not affected by extreme scores
+ good for ordinal data
X not as sensitive as mean, does not use all data
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how to calculate mode & ao3
most frequently occurring value in a set of data
+ useful for nominal data (data in categories)
X is not useful when there are several modes
123
measures of dispersion
any measure that calculates the variation in a set of data
-range
-standard deviation
124
how to calculate the range & ao3
minus the lowest score from the highest score
+ easy to calculate
X affected by extreme values
X does not use all data
125
how to calculate the standard deviation & ao3
the square root of the variance calculates SD. a low SD means that more data is clustered close to the mean hence there is less data spread
+ precise measure where all data values are taken into account
X difficult to calculate
X affected by extreme values
126
bar charts
used for discrete data, which describes data that has been divided into categories. the bars do not touch each other which shows that we are dealing with separate conditions
127
histograms and an example
the bars touch each other unlike in bar charts and this represents that we are dealing with continuous data rather than discrete
-therefore the x axis has equal sized intervals of one category (e.g. scored of an English test in intervals 0-10, 11-21, 22-32 etc) whilst the y axis represents the frequency (the number of people that score each mark)
128
line graphs
represents continuous data, whereby points are connected by lines to show the change of values
129
scattergrams
used to show associations between co-variables rather than differences hence we came across them in correlation
130
distributions
normal distribution is a symmetrical pattern of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern
-a skewed distribution is a spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, instead the data is all clustered to one end. there are two types of these:
1. positive skew whereby most of the distribution of data is concentrated on the right
2. negative skew whereby most of the data distribution is concentrated on the left
131
define peer review
the assessment of scientific work by experts in the same field, it is done to make sure that all the research intended to eventually be published is of high quality
132
main purposes of peer review
-to know which research is worthwhile hence funding can be allocated to it
-to validate the relevance and quality of research, this is important to prevent fraudulent research from being released to the public
-to suggest possible improvements or amendments to the research study
133
ao3 on peer reviews
-anonymity is a problem. reviewers sometimes use it to settle old scores or buy rivals, especially if they're competing for funds. this means that anonymity affects the objectivity of reviewers. due to this, some have started doing open reviewing to avoid this problem
-it can be difficult to find an expert. smith (1999) argues that because of this a lot of poor research is passed as the reviewer didn't really understand the work
-in peer review, any research that opposes mainstream theories tends to be suppressed, this means that establish scientists' work is more likely to be published and the new and challenging ideas are usually rejected, this means that the rate of change in scientific fields is slowing down
134
implications of psychological research for the economy
the implications that research has, refers to how what we learn from psychological research influences our country's economic prosperity.
the economy is the state of the region's activities of producing or consuming goods and services
135
implications of psychological research for the economy practical applications
psychopathology- treatments (e.g. CBT for depression, drug therapy for OCD). it ables workers to return to work
attachment- role of the father (Field found that fathers can take on the roll of being a primary caregiver). allows mothers to return to work
136
what is a case study
a detailed study into the life of a person which covers great detail into their background. it looks at the past and present behaviour of an individual to build up a case history hence provides qualitative data
137
ao3 on case studies
+ detailed so able to gain in depth insight
+ forms basis for future research
X not generalisable to wider populations as data is only gathered from one person
X they are time consuming and difficult to replicate
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