Research Methods Flashcards
(i) Scientific Processes (ii) Data handling and analysis (161 cards)
1
Q
What is an Aim?
A
It is a general statement about the purpose of the investigation
2
Q
What is an hypothesis?
A
It is a precise testable statement about the expected outcome of an investigation
3
Q
What are the types of hypotheses?
A
Null hypothesis
Experimental hypothesis
4
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
It is a statement that says that there is no relationship between the two variables
5
Q
Why is it necessary for psychologists to write a null hypothesis?
A
It is necessary because it establishes a baseline for statistical testing, promoting objectivity by initiating research from a neutral stance.
6
Q
What is an experimental hypothesis?
A
It is a statement that says there is a relationship between the two variables
7
Q
What are the two groups of experimental hypothesis?
A
Directional or one tailed hypothesis
Non directional or two tailed hypothesis
8
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
It is a statement that predicts the outcome of the research
9
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
It is a statement that does not predict the outcome of the research
10
Q
What is an IDV?
A
An IDV is a variable that’s being manipulated (changed)
11
Q
What is a DV?
A
It is a variable that’s being measured
12
Q
What is operationalisation?
A
It is turning abstract concepts into measurable observations you can test
13
Q
What is an experimental group?
A
it is the group which contains the independent variable.
14
Q
What is a control group?
A
It is the group which serves as the basis for comparison
15
Q
What are constants?
A
they are factors in an experiment that stays the same for both the experimental and control group
16
Q
What is sampling?
A
It is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study
17
Q
What is the target population?
A
It is the total group of individuals from which the sample may be drawn from.
18
Q
What is a sample?
A
It is a group of people who take part in the investigation.
19
Q
What is the meaning of generalizability?
A
It is the extent to which their findings can be applied to the wider population of which their sample was a part of.
20
Q
What are the types of sampling techniques?
A
Random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Opportunity sampling
Volunteer sampling
21
Q
What is random sampling?
A
It is when everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
22
Q
What are some strengths of random sampling?
A
- It minimizes researcher bias as every member has an equal chance of being chosen which prevents the researcher from selecting people who support their hypothesis, making the sample more representative of the target population.
- The findings can be generalized to the entire population
23
Q
What are some limitations of random sampling?
A
- It is very time consuming especially if the target population is a large population
- Access to respondents is quite hard to achieve especially if the parent population is large. Since the participants do not volunteer to participate, it can be challenging for researchers to gain access to respondents when drawing from a large population.
- The sample might still be unrepresentative as random sampling does not guarantee a balanced sample
24
Q
What is systematic sampling?
A
It is using a mathematical system to collect participants
25
What are some strengths of systematic sampling?
1. Easy to understand and execute
2. It avoids researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is chosen once the system for selection has been established ( and it is even more the case if the system is randomly selected)
26
What is a clustered selection?
It is a phenomenon in which randomly chosen samples are uncommonly close together in a population
27
What are some weaknesses of systematic sampling?
1. Greater Risk of Data Manipulation
Researchers might be able to construct their systems to increase the likelihood of achieving a targeted outcome rather than letting the random data produce a representative answer.
28
What is stratified sampling?
It is a method of selecting a sample in which researchers first divide a population into smaller subgroups, or strata, based on shared characteristics of the members and then randomly select among each stratum to form the final sample.
29
What are some advantages of stratified sampling?
1. It produces a representative sample because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population. This means that generalisation of findings becomes possible
2. It reduces researcher bias as once the target population has been subdivided into strata, the participants that make up the numbers are randomly assigned and beyond the influence of the researcher
30
What are some limitations of stratified sampling?
A population can’t be organized into subgroups if there are too many differences within the population or if there is not enough information about the population at hand.
31
What is opportunity sampling?
It uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
32
What are some strengths of this technique?
1. Easy and convenient: Participants who are readily available and accessible within their immediate surroundings can be easily recruited by researchers making it a time-efficient and cost-effective
2. Quick data collection
33
What are some limitations of this techniques?
1. The sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area so findings cannot be generalised to the wider population
2. It could be biased as the researcher as control over selection of participants and so they might use participants that give a targeted outcome thus it cannot be generalized to a larger population
34
What is volunteer sampling?
It is where people volunteer to participate. Researchers usually advertise their studies and participants decide if they want to get involved. this is a self-selected sample.
35
What is an advantage of this technique?
1. Easy and quick
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What is the disadvantage of this sampling technique?
1. Subject to bias: Voluntary sampling is highly susceptible to bias, because researchers make little effort to control sample composition.
2. Limited generalizability as findings from volunteers might not apply to broader groups.
37
What is an experiment?
An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested by manipulating an IV and measuring the DV and also controlling any extraneous variables.
38
Types of experiments.
Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
Natural experiment
Quasi experiment
39
What is a lab experiment?
It is a research method in which the experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables and measures the effects on the dependent variable under controlled conditions.
40
What are some strengths of using this experiment type?
1. It is easier to replicate because a standardized procedure is used.
2. It has high internal validity as it has high control over extraneous variables allowing a cause-and-effect relationship to be established.
41
What are some limitations of using this experiment type?
1. Low ecological validity because the experiment settings may produce unnatural behavior that does not reflect real life making it impossible to generalize the findings to a real-life setting.
2. Demand characteristics may bias the results and become confounding variables.
42
What is a field experiment?
It is a research method that takes place in a natural, real-world setting. The experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables and measures the effects on the dependent variable but this time, the experimenter has less control over the extraneous variables.
43
What are some strengths of using this experiment type?
1. High ecological validity because behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting
2. Demand characteristics are less likely to affect the results, as participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert.
44
What is a natural experiment?
It is a research method in which the experimenter observes the effects of a naturally occurring event or situation on the DV without manipulating any variables.
45
What are some strengths of using this experiment type?
1. High ecological validity
2. It can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable, e.g., researching stress.
46
What are some limitations of using this experiment type?
1. They may be more expensive and time-consuming than lab experiments.
2. There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results making it difficult for the study to be replicated.
47
What is a Quasi experiment?
It contains a naturally occurring IV. However, in a quasi-experiment the naturally occurring IV is a difference between people that already exists (i.e. gender, age). The researcher examines the effect of this variable on the dependent variable (DV).
48
What are the strengths of using this experiment?
Has the same strengths as a lab experiment - Hugh internal validity and can be replicated due to the use of standardized procedures
49
What are some limitations of using this experiment type?
Same as natural- ppt are not randomly allocated to experimental groups so there may be confounding variables
50
What are experimental designs?
Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to different groups in an experiment
51
What are the types of experimental designs?
Independent groups
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
52
What are independent groups?
It is an experimental design where different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants.
53
What are some positives of this experimental design?
Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people participate in one condition only.
54
What are some weakness of this experimental design?
1. Time-consuming as more people are needed.
2. Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example, variations in age, gender, or social background. These differences are known as participant variables which are a type of extraneous variable.
55
How can we control the participant variables?
After the participants have been recruited, they should be randomly assigned to their groups. This should ensure the groups are similar, on average (reducing participant variables).
56
What is repeated measures design?
It is an experimental design where the same participants participate in each independent variable condition. This means that each experiment condition includes the same group of participants.
57
What are some strengths of using this experimental design?
1. Saves time as fewer people are needed
2. Participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are reduced as the same participants are used in each condition.
58
What are some weakness of using this experimental design?
1. There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions affecting the participants’ behavior. Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants know what to do (i.e., practice effect), or their performance might be worse in the second condition because they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect).
59
What is order effect?
Order effects refer to the order of the conditions affecting the participants’ behavior.
60
Examples of order effect
1. Practice effect: an improvement in performance on a task due to repetition, for example, because of familiarity with the task
2. Fatigue effect: a decrease in performance of a task due to repetition, for example, because of boredom or tiredness.
61
How can order effect be controlled?
It can be controlled by counterbalancing
62
What is counterbalancing?
It is a technique used to deal with order effects when using repeated measures design. Researchers alternate the order in which participants perform in different conditions of an experiment
63
What is matched pair design?
It is an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables like age or socioeconomic status
64
How does this design work?
One member of each pair is then placed into the experimental group and the other member into the control group.
One member of each matched pair must be randomly assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group.
65
What are some strengths of using this experimental design?
1. Reduces participant variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the participants so that each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics.
2. It avoids order effects, so counterbalancing is not necessary.
66
What are some weaknesses of using this experimental design?
1. If one participant drops out, you lose 2 PPs’ data.
2. Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs.
3. Impossible to match people exactly unless they are identical twins
67
What are extraneous variables?
Extraneous variables are factors other than the independent and dependent variables that may unintentionally influence the results of an experiment.
68
What are the types of extraneous variables?
Situational variables
Participant variables
69
What are situational variables?
Situational variables are factors, conditions, or characteristics related to the external environment that can influence a situation’s behavior, decision-making, or outcome.
70
Examples of situational variables
Weather, location, time of day, or noise level; social aspects like the presence of others or societal norms, to more abstract aspects like time, pressure and level of risk
71
What are participant variables?
This refers to the ways in which each participant varies from the other and how this could affect the results, e.g., mood, intelligence or anxiety
72
What are demand characteristics?
It is where the participant behave differently because they know they’re in an experiment or because they have already figured out the aim of the investigation.
73
What are investigator effects?
It is when the experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave and they may do this by giving unintentional clues to the participants about the experiment which affects the participants’ behavior.
74
How can investigator effect be controlled?
Double blind can be used – this is where neither the participants nor experimenter know the aim of the study so they cannot inflict investigator effects
75
What are self report techniques?
They are methods used to collect data/ information from participants about how they feel or think
76
What are the two techniques that are used?
Questionnaires and;
Interviews
77
What are questionnaires?
It is a technique whereby participants give information in response to a set of questions sent to them
78
What format of questions do questionnaires use?
They use specific open and closed questions
79
What are interviews?
It is when participants give information in response to the direct questioning from the researcher
80
What format do interviews use?
They use a mixture of open and closed questions.
They also use structured, unstructured, and semi-structured design when asking questions
81
What are open questions?
They are questions that allow participants to respond however they want. There is no fixed range of answers.
82
What type of data does it produce?
It produces QUALITATIVE data (non numerical data)
83
What is the strength of open questions?
Since participants can respond however they like, the results will be more valid (true)
84
What are some weakness of using open questions?
SInce it produces qualitative data, it makes it harder to spot patterns in responses
85
What are closed questions?
They are questions that limit a participants response to a fixed range of answers
86
What type of data does it produce?
QUANTITATIVE data
87
What are some strengths of closed questions?
Since it produces quantitative data, it makes it easier to spot patterns in responses and so the results can be compared
88
What are some weakness of using closed questions?
Since participants can't answer however they like, it is argued that the responses produced are less valid
89
Types of closed questions
Likert scale
Fixed choice option scale
Ranking scale
90
What are the three interview designs that can be used?
Structured
Semi structured
Unstructured
91
What is a structured interview?
It is one that has pre-arranged questions in a fixed order
92
What are some strengths of using structured interview design?
1. The results can easily be compared as the same questions are asked to all participants in the same order
2. The interviewer doesn't have to be highly trained to conduct the interview
93
What are some limitations of using this design?
Responses cannot be followed up with additional questions which can provide more detail
94
What is a semi structured interview?
It is one that asks a combination of both pre-arranged questions and additional questions (that are not pre arranged)
95
What are some strength of using this interview design?
1. Rapport is more likely to form,making the participant more comfortable to answer
2. Responses are easier to compare since same Q's are used
3. Interviewers can ask follow up questions in response to interesting answers
96
What are some weaknesses of using this interview design?
A highly trained interviewer is needed to think up appropriate questions
97
What is an unstructured interview?
It is one where there are no pre-arranged questions
98
What are some strengths of using this design?
1. Rapport is more likely to form,making the participant more comfortable to answer
2. Interviewers can ask follow up questions in response to interesting answers
99
What are some weaknesses about using this design?
1. Responses are difficult to compare since different Q's are asked
2. A highly trained interviewer is needed to think up appropriate questions
100
Considerations when writing questions (for both questionnaires and interviews)
1. Avoid using complex terminology: this leads to participants guessing the meaning of a word resulting in inaccurate responses
2. Avoid using double barreled questions: These are questions that ask participants two questions at the same time but only allows one response.
3. Avoid using double negatives
4. Avoid using leading questions
101
Strengths of using Questionnaires (AO3 evaluations)
1. When using closed questions,researchers can compare many thousands of responses easily
2. Doesn't require a trained interviewer
102
Issues with Questionnaires (AO3 Evaluation)
Response bias- is a general term for a wide range of tendencies for participants to respond inaccurately or falsely to questions.Social desirability bias- our tendency to respond in ways that we feel are more appropriate or socially acceptable to others.
Acquiescence bias- the tendency for survey respondents to agree with research statements, without the action being a true reflection of their own position or the question itself.
103
Strengths of using Interviews (AO3 evaluations)
1. Questions not understood can be rephrased
2. Rapport can be built making it more likely for the interviewee to take it more seriously
104
Limitations of using interviews (AO3 evaluations)
1. Requires a trained interviewer which increases cost per participants
2. Interviewer effect- when the personal characteristics of the interviewer can alter the response of the participants
105
What are correlations?
They are relationships between two variables
106
What are covariables?
They are the variables that are investigated in a correlation. They are just measured and compared, NOT MANIPULATED
107
Types of correlation
Positive correlation
Negative correlation
No correlation
108
What is a positive correlation?
It is a relationship between two variables in which they both move in the same direction; As one ⬆, the other ⬆ OR as one ⬇, the other ⬇
109
What is a negative correlation?
It is a relationship between two variables in which one ⬇ and the other ⬆
110
What is no correlation?
There is NO relationship between the two variables
111
What are scattergrams?
They are a graphical display of the relationship between the two co-variables
They indicate the strength and direction of the correlation between the two co-variables
112
What are correlation coefficient?
They represent both the strength and the direction of the relationship between the two variables as numbers between -1 and +1
113
NB on correlation coefficient
Values under zero represent a negative correlation while values above zero represent a positive correlation
114
Strengths of correlation (AO3 evaluation)
1. It allows researchers to investigate variables which could be unethical to investigate experimentally
2. It allows researchers to see if there's a causal relationship between variables, which can then be tested experimentally
3. Correlation coefficient is a useful tool in describing the strength and direction of the relationship between two factors
115
Limitations of correlation (AO3 evaluation)
1. Correlation does NOT imply causation. A third factor could have caused the change in both variables
116
What is measure of central tendency?
They are averages which give information about the most typical values in a set of data
117
What are the 3 measures of central tendency?
Mean, Median, and Mode
118
What is the mean?
It is the average of all values in a data set
119
How is the mean calculated?
It is calculated by adding up all the scores in a data set and dividing this figure by total number of scores there are
120
What is a strength of using the mean?
It is the most sensitive measure of central tendency which means it includes all the data in its calculation. This means it is representative of the data as a whole
121
What is a weakness of using the mean?
Because of its sensitivity, it is easily affected by extreme values- outliers
122
What is the median?
It is the middle value in the data set
123
How is the median calculated?
It is calculated by ordering the values from lowest to highest and selecting the value in the middle. In an even number of scores, the median is halfway between the two middle scores
124
What are some strengths of using the median?
1. It is not affected by extreme values
2. It is easy to calculate
125
What are some weaknesses of using the median?
1. It does not include all values in its calculation
2. If there are even number of data point, the "typical" value will be a number that's not one of the recorded values
126
What is the mode?
It is the most frequent score in a data set. If there are 2 modes, the data is bi-modal and if there are multiple modes, then the data set is multimodal
127
What are some strength of using the mode?
1. Not affected by extreme values
2. Giving the modal group is the only way of giving the average of data in categories
128
What are some weaknesses about using the mode?
1. Does not include all data in its calculation
2. There can be no modes if every value is different or multiple modes which is especially likely in small data sets
129
What is measure of dispersion?
It is based on the spread of scores; how far scores differ and vary from one another
130
What are the two measures of dispersion?
Range and Standard deviation
131
What is the range?
It is the difference between a data set's highest and lowest value
132
How is the range calculated?
It is calculated by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value and (usually) adding 1. (Big-small)+1
133
Why is 1 usually added to the range?
It allows for the fact that raw scores are often rounded up or down when they are recorded within research
134
What are some strengths of using the range?
It is easy to calculate when compared to SD
135
What is a weakness about using the range?
Extreme scores usually distort the value so it is unrepresentative of the data as a whole
136
What is Standard deviation?
It is a single value that tells us how far scores deviate from the mean. The larger the SD, the greater the spread within the set.
137
In an experiment, what does the value of the SD tell us?
1. A large SD suggests that not all participants were affected by the IV in the same way because the data is widely spread.
2. A low SD value reflects that the data are tightly clustered around the mean which might imply that all participants responded in a similar way.
138
What are some strengths of using SD?
1. It includes all values in its calculation
2. It provides information about the spread of scores
139
What are some weaknesses about using SD?
1. It is difficult to calculate
2. Extreme scores distort the value
140
What is the 68,95,99.7 rule?
It is the use of percentages to say how far a particular value is away from the mean
68% of the data is 1SD away from the mean
95% of the data is 2SD away from the mean, and 99.7% of the data is 3SD away from the mean.
141
What are levels of measurement?
It refers to numerical data at varying levels of precision
142
What are the three types of data?
Nominal, Ordinal and Interval data
143
What is nominal data?
It is the number of items we have in a category
144
What is ordinal data?
It consists of a list of data that can be ranked in order. Eg positions in a competition(first,second,third), heights among a group
145
What is interval data?
It is data where a numerical value is achieved from a scale with equal intervals between each point.*It usually has standardised units* Eg weight in grams, temperature in seconds.
146
What is statistical testing?
It is a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected
147
What is the level of significance used in psychology?
0.05 or 5% as a percentage
148
What things are needed before we use a sign test?
1. We need to be looking for a difference rather than an association
2. We need data organised in categories-Nominal data
3. We need to be using repeated measures design
149
What things do we need to work out the critical value?
1. the total number of participants- the N number
2. The level of significance which is usually 0.05 unless stated otherwise
3. To state whether the hypothesis is directional(1 tailed) or nondirectional(2 tailed)
150
What are the ways quantitative data can be presented and displayed?
Graphs- Line graphs, scattergrams,Histograms
Charts- Pie charts, bar charts
Tables
151
Why use a table to present quantitative data?
Patterns in large amounts of raw data can be hard to see in raw data tables so tables of descriptive statistics summarise large quantities of raw information into measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion
152
When are bar charts used?
They are used when the data is divided into categories, also known as discrete data
The categorical data is on the x-axis while the frequency is on the y-axis
153
When are scattergrams used?
They are used to show the relationship between two co-variables. Either co-variable can be on either axis
154
When are histograms used?
They are used to display the frequency of continuous data. The frequency is placed on the Y-axis while the continuous variable is placed on the X-axis.
The bars touch each other which shows that the data is continuous rather than discrete
155
What does a line graph represent?
It represents continuous data and uses points connected by lines to show how something changes in value
The IV is plotted on the x-axis while the DV is plotted on the y-axis
156
What is a normal distribution?
All the data are located in the middle area of the curve with only few people at the extreme ends The mean, median, and mode all occupy the same midpoint of the curve
157
What is a skewed distribution?
This is when the distribution of data leans to one side or the other
158
What is a positive skew?
This is when the distribution of data lies to the left of the graph resulting in a long tail on the right
159
How does a positive skew affect the three measures of central tendency?
The mean has been dragged to the right of the graph because it has been affected by extreme scores from the high scoring candidates in the test
The median comes next
The mode is the highest point of the peak
160
What is a negative skew?
This is when the distribution of data lies to the right of the graph resulting in a long tail on the left
161
How does a negative skew affect the three measures of central tendency?
The mean has been dragged to the left of the graph because it has been affected by extreme scores from the low scoring candidates in the test
The median comes next
The mode is the highest point of the peak
