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research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the circle of science?

A

The circle of science refers to the iterative process in scientific research where observations lead to hypotheses, experiments test these hypotheses, data analysis confirms or disproves the hypothesis, and results lead to new questions or refinements of theory.

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2
Q

Who is Ferdinand Bernhard?

A

Ferdinand Bernhard is likely a typo or confusion with “Ferdinand de Saussure,” a Swiss linguist whose theories influenced many disciplines, including psychology, particularly in structuralism.

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3
Q

What were his roles?

A

If referring to Saussure, his main role was as a linguist who founded structuralism, influencing various fields, including psychology, by highlighting how language shapes thought.

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4
Q

How did psychology come on its own as a scientific discipline?

A

Psychology became a scientific discipline in the late 19th century with the founding of laboratories, such as Wilhelm Wundt’s in 1879, which introduced experimental methods to study the human mind objectively.

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5
Q

What is contemporary psychology?

A

Contemporary psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes in the modern world, incorporating various approaches such as cognitive, biological, and social psychology, influenced by advancements in neuroscience and technology.

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6
Q

What is an experiment?

A

An experiment is a research method in which the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, while controlling other factors.

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7
Q

What are the conditions for an experiment?

A

The conditions include controlled variables, random assignment of participants, manipulation of independent variables, and measurement of dependent variables to ensure reliable results

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8
Q

What is meant by the term standardised procedure?

A

Standardised procedures refer to a consistent and uniform way of conducting experiments, ensuring that every participant experiences the same conditions, reducing bias and increasing reliability.

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9
Q

Why are dependent variables need to be caused by independent variables?

A

The dependent variable must be influenced by the independent variable to test the hypothesis and establish a cause-effect relationship in the experiment.

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10
Q

What are the main features of an experiment?

A

The main features include manipulation of independent variables, measurement of dependent variables, control of extraneous variables, random allocation, and standardised procedures.

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11
Q

What is location in an experiment?

A

The location refers to the physical setting or environment where the experiment takes place, which can influence participant behavior and results.

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12
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A

A laboratory experiment is conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher can manipulate variables and measure their effects on behavior or mental processes.

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13
Q

What are controls?

A

Controls are factors or variables that are kept constant throughout the experiment to prevent them from influencing the dependent variable, ensuring that changes are due to the independent variable.

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14
Q

How do you evaluate a laboratory experiment?

A

Evaluation involves assessing the validity, reliability, ethics, and generalizability of the experiment, considering whether it measures what it intended and whether it can be replicated.

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15
Q

What is validity?

A

Validity refers to the extent to which an experiment measures what it is intended to measure, ensuring the results are accurate and meaningful.

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16
Q

What is reliability?

A

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time or across different researchers, indicating the experiment’s dependability.

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17
Q

What are ethics?

A

Ethics in psychology refers to the moral principles guiding research, including informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm, and the right to withdraw.

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18
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

A field experiment is conducted in a natural setting outside of the laboratory, where the researcher manipulates an independent variable and observes its effect on the dependent variable in a real-world context.

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19
Q

How do you evaluate a field experiment?

A

Evaluation involves assessing ecological validity (real-world relevance), control over extraneous variables, and ethical considerations, as field experiments often lack full control

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20
Q

What are the features of a laboratory experiment?

A

Features include a controlled environment, manipulation of independent variables, random allocation of participants, and high control over extraneous variables.

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21
Q

What are the features of a field experiment?

A

Features include real-world settings, natural behavior of participants, manipulation of variables, and less control over extraneous variables compared to laboratory experiment

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22
Q

What are control groups/conditions?

A

Control groups are groups of participants who do not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation, used for comparison against the experimental group

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23
Q

What is experimental design?

A

Experimental design refers to the overall strategy used to conduct an experiment, including how participants are allocated and how variables are controlled and manipulated.

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24
Q

What is repeated measures design?

A

Repeated measures design is when the same participants take part in all experimental conditions, allowing for comparisons across conditions within the same individuals.

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25
What is random allocation?
Random allocation refers to randomly assigning participants to different experimental conditions to control for bias and ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition.
26
What are participant variables?
Participant variables are individual differences (e.g., age, gender, intelligence) that may affect the results of an experiment and need to be controlled or accounted for.
27
What are situational variables?
Situational variables are external factors (e.g., lighting, temperature, time of day) that can influence the outcome of an experiment and need to be controlled to maintain consistency.
28
What are demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics are cues in an experiment that influence participants to behave in a way they think is expected, potentially biasing the results.
29
What are order effects and explain the two kinds?
Order effects refer to changes in participants' performance due to the order in which experimental conditions are presented. The two kinds are practice effects (improvement) and fatigue effects (decline).
30
What is counterbalancing?
Counterbalancing is a technique used in repeated measures design to control for order effects by varying the order of conditions for different participants
31
What is a matched pairs design?
A matched pairs design is when participants are paired based on similarities (e.g., age, IQ) and each member of the pair is assigned to a different condition.
32
What is the placebo effect?
The placebo effect occurs when participants experience a perceived improvement in their condition due to their belief that they are receiving treatment, even when no active treatment is given.
33
What is a double-blind design?
A double-blind design is an experimental procedure where both the participants and the researchers do not know which condition the participants are in, reducing bias in the study.
34
What are questionnaires?
Questionnaires are self-report tools used to collect data from participants through a series of written questions, either open or closed-ended.
35
What are self-reports?
Self-reports are research methods where participants provide information about themselves, often through questionnaires, interviews, or diaries.
36
What are the possible ways a questionnaire can be completed?
Questionnaires can be completed in person, online, by mail, or over the phone.
37
What are closed questions?
Closed questions are those that offer predefined responses, such as "yes/no" or multiple-choice options, making them easier to analyze.
38
What are open questions?
Open questions allow participants to respond freely and in detail, providing richer qualitative data.
39
What is a rating scale?
A rating scale is a type of closed question where participants rate something on a scale (e.g., from 1 to 5) to indicate their opinion or feelings.
40
How do you evaluate questionnaires?
Evaluation involves assessing the clarity of questions, reliability of responses, sampling methods, response rates, and potential biases such as social desirability.
41
What kind of closed questions are there?
Types of closed questions include multiple-choice, true/false, yes/no, and Likert scale (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree).
42
What kind of open questions are there?
Types of open questions include general prompts, "how" or "why" questions, and those that ask for detailed opinions or explanations.
43
What are advantages of questionnaires?
Advantages include being cost-effective, easy to administer to large groups, and allowing for anonymity, which may encourage honest answers
44
What are disadvantages of questionnaires?
Disadvantages include response bias, misunderstanding of questions, and limited depth in responses, especially with closed questions.
45
What are interviews?
Interviews are a research method in which the researcher asks participants questions to gather qualitative data, either in a structured, semi-structured, or unstructured format
46
What are the ways an interview can be conducted?
Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or through video conferencing.
47
What are different kinds of interviews?
Types include structured (pre-set questions), semi-structured (a mix of prepared and spontaneous questions), and unstructured (more open-ended conversation).
48
What is a structured interview?
A structured interview follows a fixed set of questions, with no deviation, ensuring consistency across participants.
49
What is an unstructured interview?
An unstructured interview is flexible, with no predetermined questions, allowing for a free-flowing conversation.
50
What are the advantages of interviews?
Advantages include the ability to gather rich, qualitative data, clarify questions, and establish rapport with participants.
51
What are the disadvantages of interviews?
Disadvantages include interviewer bias, social desirability bias, and the time-consuming nature of conducting and analyzing interviews.
52
What are psychometric tests?
Psychometric tests are standardized assessments designed to measure psychological variables, such as intelligence, personality, and aptitude.
53
What is the floor and ceiling effect?
The floor effect occurs when test items are too difficult, and the ceiling effect occurs when they are too easy, leading to a lack of variability in results.
54
What are case studies?
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single individual, group, or event, providing detailed qualitative data.
55
What are advantages of case studies?
Advantages include rich, detailed insights, especially for rare or unique cases, and the ability to explore complex psychological phenomena.
56
What are the disadvantages of case studies?
Disadvantages include limited generalizability, researcher bias, and the potential for ethical concerns.
57
What is observation?
Observation involves systematically watching and recording behavior in a natural or controlled setting without intervening.
58
What kinds of observations are there?
Types include participant observation, non-participant observation, structured observation, unstructured observation, naturalistic observation, and controlled observation.
59
What is participant observation?
Participant observation involves the researcher becoming part of the group being studied to observe behavior from the inside.
60
What is non-participant observation?
Non-participant observation involves the researcher observing the group without becoming involved in their activities.
61
What is structured observation?
Structured observation uses a predefined system for recording behavior, often with a checklist or coding scheme.
62
What is unstructured observation?
Unstructured observation involves observing behavior without a specific framework or categories, allowing for flexibility and detailed insights.
63
What is naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observation takes place in a real-world setting where the researcher observes behavior without interfering.
64
What is controlled observation?
Controlled observation is conducted in a setting where the researcher can manipulate certain variables to study behavior in a more controlled environment.
65
What are the advantages of observations?
Advantages include observing natural behavior in real-world settings and obtaining data without reliance on self-report.
66
What are the disadvantages of observations?
Disadvantages include observer bias, ethical concerns (e.g., consent), and the potential for limited generalizability
67
What are correlations?
Correlations examine the relationship between two variables, indicating whether and how they are related.
68
How does operational definition work?
Operational definitions specify the exact procedures or measurements used in a study to ensure clarity and consistency.
69
What is a positive correlation?
A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases.
70
What is a negative correlation?
A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.
71
What is no correlation?
No correlation means there is no predictable relationship between two variables.
72
What are the advantages of correlations?
Advantages include identifying relationships between variables, often used when experiments are not feasible or ethical.
73
What are the disadvantages of correlations?
Disadvantages include not establishing cause-and-effect relationships and the potential for confounding variables.
74
What are longitudinal studies?
Longitudinal studies track the same individuals or groups over a long period to observe changes or developments over time.
75
What are follow-up sessions?
Follow-up sessions are additional sessions conducted after an initial study to collect further data on the participants.
76
What are advantages of longitudinal studies?
Advantages include tracking changes over time, studying long-term effects, and observing developmental patterns.
77
What are the disadvantages of longitudinal studies?
Disadvantages include being time-consuming, expensive, and subject to participant drop-out, which can bias the results.
78
What is an aim?
An aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to achieve in their study, outlining the purpose or goal of the research.
79
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a study, based on existing knowledge or theory.
80
What is operationalisation?
Operationalisation is the process of defining variables in terms of how they will be measured or manipulated in a study, making them specific and measurable.
81
What are two kinds of hypotheses?
The two main kinds of hypotheses are the alternative hypothesis (predicting a relationship between variables) and the null hypothesis (predicting no relationship between variables).
82
What is directional?
A directional hypothesis predicts the specific direction of the relationship between variables (e.g., increasing A will lead to an increase in B).
83
What is non-directional?
A non-directional hypothesis predicts that there is a relationship between variables but does not specify the direction (e.g., A is related to B, but the relationship could be positive or negative).
84
What is a null hypothesis?
A null hypothesis is a statement that predicts there will be no effect or relationship between variables, and any observed difference is due to chance.
85
What is data analysis?
Data analysis is the process of organizing, interpreting, and making sense of data collected in a research study to draw conclusions.
86
What is standardisation of procedure?
Standardisation of procedure involves ensuring that every participant in a study follows the same set of instructions and experiences the same conditions to maintain consistency.
87
Why are controlled variables important?
Controlled variables are important because they prevent extraneous factors from influencing the results, allowing the researcher to establish a clearer cause-and-effect relationship.
88
What are participant variables?
Participant variables are characteristics of individual participants (e.g., age, gender, personality) that may affect the outcome of the study.
89
What is random allocation?
Random allocation is used to control for participant variables, ensuring that differences between groups are not due to individual characteristics.
90
What are situational variables?
Situational variables are external factors in the research environment (e.g., lighting, noise, temperature) that can influence participants' behavior.
91
What are uncontrolled variables?
Uncontrolled variables are factors that have not been kept constant in an experiment, which can introduce bias and affect the results.
92
What types of data are there?
There are two main types of data: quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (descriptive).
93
What is quantitative data?
Quantitative data consists of numerical values that can be measured and analyzed statistically, such as test scores, age, or reaction time.
94
What is qualitative data?
Qualitative data consists of descriptive information that cannot be measured numerically, such as participants' opinions, feelings, or observations.
95
What is strength of quantitative data?
The strength of quantitative data is that it is objective, reliable, and can be easily analyzed using statistical methods.
96
What is weakness of quantitative data?
The weakness of quantitative data is that it may lack depth and fail to capture the richness or complexity of human experiences.
97
What is strength of qualitative data?
The strength of qualitative data is that it provides detailed, in-depth insights into participants' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
98
What is weakness of qualitative data?
The weakness of qualitative data is that it can be subjective, harder to analyze, and may be influenced by researcher bias.
99
What is subjective data?
Subjective data is based on personal opinions, interpretations, and feelings, which can vary from person to person
100
What is objective data?
Objective data is based on observable, measurable facts that are independent of personal feelings or opinions.
101
What is a sample?
A sample is a subset of the population that is selected to participate in a study, which represents the larger group.
102
What is a population?
The population is the entire group of individuals or items that a researcher is interested in studying.
103
What are sampling techniques?
Sampling techniques are methods used to select participants from the population, including methods like opportunity sampling, random sampling, and volunteer sampling.
104
What is opportunity sampling?
Opportunity sampling is when participants are selected based on availability, often used for convenience in research.
105
What is random sampling?
Random sampling is when each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study.
106
What is volunteer sampling?
Volunteer sampling is when participants self-select to participate in the study, often in response to advertisements or requests.
107
What are ethical guidelines?
Ethical guidelines are principles that researchers follow to ensure the safety, dignity, and rights of participants, such as informed consent, confidentiality, and minimizing harm.
108
What is valid consent?
Valid consent occurs when participants are fully informed about the study's nature and procedures and voluntarily agree to take part.
109
What is the right to withdraw?
The right to withdraw allows participants to leave the study at any time without penalty or negative consequences.
110
What is minimizing harm and maximizing benefit?
This principle means researchers must ensure the potential benefits of a study outweigh any risks or harm to participants.
111
What is lack of deception?
What is lack of deception?
112
What is confidentiality?
Confidentiality ensures that participants' personal information is protected and not shared without their consent.
113
What is privacy?
Privacy refers to participants' right to control what personal information is shared and how it is used in research.
114
What is debriefing?
Debriefing is the process of informing participants about the true nature and purpose of the study after it has been completed, especially if deception was involved.
115
What are ethics related to animals?
Ethics related to animals involves ensuring humane treatment, minimizing harm, and following strict regulations when using animals in research.
116
Why is minimizing harm and maximizing benefit important?
It is important to ensure that research does not cause unnecessary harm or distress to participants while maximizing the potential for positive outcomes.
117
Why is replacement important?
Replacement is important because it encourages researchers to find alternatives to using animals in research when possible
118
Why is species important?
Species is important to ensure that the animals used in research are appropriate for the study's goals and are treated in ways that are consistent with ethical guidelines for that species.
119
Why is number important?
The number of animals used in research is important to minimize harm and ensure that enough data is collected without overuse.
120
What is validity?
Validity refers to the extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure, ensuring accurate and meaningful results.
121
What is ecological validity?
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to real-life settings.
122
123
What is validity related to demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics can threaten validity by influencing participants to behave in a way they think is expected, thereby distorting the study's findings.
124
What is generalizability?
Generalizability refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to other populations, settings, or times.
125
What is temporal validity?
Temporal validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to different time periods.
126
What is reliability?
Reliability refers to the consistency of results in a study. Reliable results should be repeatable and produce similar outcomes over time.
127
What is standardisation?
Standardisation refers to ensuring that the procedures, instructions, and conditions of the study are the same for all participants to reduce variability and improve reliability.
128
What is test-retest reliability?
Test-retest reliability involves administering the same test to the same participants at two different times and checking for consistency in results.
129
What is inter-rater reliability?
Inter-rater reliability refers to the degree to which different observers or raters agree on their assessments of the same phenomenon.
130
What is inter-observer reliability?
Inter-observer reliability is the degree of consistency between different researchers or observers when recording data or observing behavior.
131
What are measures of central tendency?
Measures of central tendency are statistical measures that describe the center or average of a data set, including mean, median, and mode.
132
What is a measure of spread?
A measure of spread refers to how much the data varies, with examples including range, variance, and standard deviation.
133
134
What are bar charts?
Bar charts are visual representations of data where bars of different lengths represent the frequency or amount of different categories.
135
What are histograms?
Histograms are similar to bar charts but are used for displaying frequency distributions of continuous data, with bars representing intervals of data.
136
What are scatter graphs?
Scatter graphs are used to display the relationship between two variables, with each point representing a data pair.

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