Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
What is the experimental method?
A
A method which involves manipulating an IV to measure the effect on the DV
2
Q
Define ‘aim’
A
Describes the purpose of a study
3
Q
Define ‘hypothesis’
A
Clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between two variables
e.g. leaving for lunch will effect GCSE results
4
Q
What is a directional hypothesis? When is it used?
A
Shows expected direction of the relationship between two variables.
When there has been prior research to indicate a direction of the relationship.
e.g. leaving for lunch will increase GCSE results
5
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis? When is it used?
A
Outlines a relationship between two variables but doesn’t state the expected direction of the relationship.
When research is conflicting or there has been no prior research.
e.g. leaving for lunch will effect GCSE results
6
Q
What does it mean to operationalise a variable?
A
Clearly defining variables to make them specific and clearly measurable
7
Q
Define ‘independent variable’
A
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher
8
Q
Define ‘dependent variable’
A
The variable that is measured by the researcher
9
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
The variable (other than the IV) that potentially affects the DV in a non-systematic way. Can be controlled. May compete with the IV.
10
Q
What are confounding variables?
A
The variable (other than the IV) that will affect the DV in a systematic way so we can’t tell if a change in the DV is due to manipulation of the IV or a confounding variable.
11
Q
What are participant variables? Examples
A
Type of extraneous variables related to the individual differences between participants which may affect the DV e.g. IQ, Age, Gender
12
Q
What are situational variables? Examples
A
Type of extraneous variables relate to the differences in the environment of the experimental situation which may affect the DV e.g. Temperature, time of day, weather, noise.
13
Q
What are demand characteristics?
A
Cues from the experiment allowing the participant to work out the purpose of the experiment
14
Q
What are investigator effects?
A
Unconscious or conscious effect of the investigator on the DV.
E.g. smiling at participants giving correct answers or asking leading questions.
15
Q
What is randomisation?
A
Use of chance to reduce the researcher’s influence on the investigation.
E.g. order of word lists are random. Controls for investigator effects.
16
Q
What is standardisation?
A
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study. Controls for situational variables.
17
Q
What is a single-blind procedure and what is it’s purpose?
A
When participants are not aware of the aim of the study or which condition they are in in the experiment. To control for demand characteristics.
18
Q
What is a double-blind procedure? What is the purpose?
A
When both the participants and experimenter are not aware of the aim of the experiment. To reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.
19
Q
What is the target population?
A
The group of people who the researcher is interested in and from which a smaller sample is drawn
20
Q
What is the sample?
A
A smaller group of people taken from the target population who take part in the research investigation
21
Q
Define ‘sampling techniques’
A
The method used to select people from the population
22
Q
Define ‘bias’ in terms of sampling
A
Over or under representing a group within the sample selected
23
Q
Define ‘generalisation’
A
Ability to apply findings from an investigation to the population
24
Q
Name the 5 types of sampling
A
1) random 2) systematic 3) stratified 4) opportunity 5) volunteer
25
What is random sampling?
Produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
26
What is systematic sampling?
Sample obtained by selecting every nth person (where n is any number)
27
What is stratified sampling?
Sample obtained by identifying subgroups (strata) in the target population and ensuring the sample reflects the proportions of people in each strata.
28
What is opportunity sampling?
Recruit people who are both accessible and willing
29
What is volunteer sampling?
Participants select themselves to be part of the sample.
30
State 1 advantage and 2 disadvantages of random sampling
Unbiased- all members of target population have an equal chance of selection
1. Time consuming- requires a list of all members of population and then contact all those selected
2. May not be truly representative of population e.g. might all come from same school or town.
31
State 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of systematic sampling
Avoids researcher bias as participants selected using an objective measure.
Not truly unbiased/random unless you selected a number using a random method
32
State 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of stratified sampling
Representative sample- there is a proportional and randomly selected representation of subgroups
Time consuming to identify subgroups.
33
State 1 disadvantage and advantage of opportunity sampling
- Easy, convenient and cost-effective
- Unrepresentative sample as It is drawn from a specific area.
34
State an advantage and disadvantage of volunteer sampling
- Less time consuming. Often achieves a large sample size through reaching a wide audience.
- Volunteer bias- unrepresentative sample as may attract a certain 'type' of person
35
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run that takes place before the actual investigation is conducted.
36
What is the purpose of a pilot study?
To check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and to allow researcher to make changes or modifications
37
What are ethical issues?
A conflict between participant rights and researcher's needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings
38
What is the BPS code of ethics?
A legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and isn't acceptable when dealing with participants
39
What are the four major ethical issues?
1) Informed consent
2) deception
3) Protection from harm
4) privacy and confidentiality
40
Define 'informed consent'
Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the purpose of the research and their role in it so they can make an informed decision about whether to participate
41
Define 'deception'
A participant is not told the true aims of a study and so cannot give truly informed consent
42
Define 'protection from harm'
Participants must not be exposed to any negative physical or psychological effects than they would in their normal day
43
Define 'privacy'
The right to control information about yourself.
44
Define 'confidentiality'
Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another and the trust that the information will be protected
45
Describe a way to overcome issues with informed consent
Participants issued with consent letter detailing relevant info that might affect their decision to participate. Should be made aware of their right to withdraw
46
Describe a way to overcome issues with deception
Debrief- Happens at the end of study. Participants made aware of true aims of study and can refuse for their data to be used.
47
How do you overcome issues with privacy and confidentiality?
Ensure anonymity. E.g. refer to participants using numbers or initials Remind during debrief that participants' data will be protected
48
How do you overcome issues with protection from harm?
Debrief- made aware of true aims of study. Should be reassured that behaviour was typical and in extreme cases counselling/ long-term follow us care offered.
49
What is presumptive consent?
When consent is gained from a similar group of people to the participants
50
What is prior general consent?
When consent is given by participants to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will be deceptive
51
What is retrospective consent?
Participants asked for consent during the debrief. They may not have been aware of their participation in the study or been subject to deception.
52
Define 'experimental design'
The organisation of participants across experimental conditions
53
Name the 3 types of experimental design
1) Independent groups, 2) Repeated measures, 3) Matched pairs
54
Define 'independent groups'
Participants are allocated to just one experimental condition meaning different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable
55
Define 'repeated measures'
The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable so all participants take part in all experimental conditions.
56
Define 'matched pairs'
Participants paired on a variable and then one of each pair allocated to each experimental condition. Identical twins best to use
57
Give two advantages and disadvantages of independent groups design
- No order effects
- Less demand characteristics (less likely to guess aim)
-Participant variables have a bigger impact on results
- Need more participants (less economical)
58
Give two advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures design
-Participant variables are controlled
-Less participants needed
-Demand characteristics, order effects
59
What are order effects?
Occur in repeated measures design
Repeating 2 tasks could create boredom or fatigue leading to deterioration in performance on 2nd task. Or could lead to practice effects where participants’ performance improves.
60
Give 3 advantages and 2 disadvantages of matched pairs design
-Reduce impact of participant variables
-Less demand characteristics
-No order effects
1. Time consuming
2. Not possible to control all participant variables as can only match on variables known to be relevant, but could be others are important.
61
Outline one way to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design
Counterbalancing - Half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
62
Give one way to overcome the higher chance of participant variables in an independent groups design?
Random allocation→ Allocating participants to experimental groups or conditions using random techniques.
63
What are the four types of experiments?
Laboratory, field, natural and quasi
64
Define 'laboratory' experiment
An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment. Experimenter manipulates IV.
65
Give 2 advantages and disadvantages of lab experiments
*High internal validity (as can control extraneous variables)
*Replication easy
*Low external validity (not easy to generalise findings to real world)
*High chance of demand characteristics
66
Define 'field' experiments
IV manipulated in a natural setting
67
Give 1 advantage and 2 disadvantages of field experiments
*High external validity (behaviour more likely to represent behaviour in real world)
*Lower internal validity- More extraneous variables
*Can be ethical issues (no consent/privacy)
68
Define 'natural experiments'
Change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher, but would have varied naturally, without the researcher
69
Give 2 advantages and disadvantages of natural experiments
*allow research that may not be possible for ethical or ethical reasons
*High external validity (examines real life issues)
*Cannot demonstrate causal relationships because IV not directly manipulated
*Participants not randomly allocated to groups (high impact of participant variables)
70
Define 'quasi experiments'
Where the IV is not something that varies, but is a condition that exists- e.g. age, gender
71
State 2 advantages and 1 disadvantage of a quasi experiment
*High internal validity (as can control extraneous variables)
*Replication easy
*Cannot randomly allocate participants so may be participant variables which act as confounding variables
72
Define a 'naturalistic observation'
Behaviour is observed in an everyday setting in which the target behaviour would normally occur.
73
Define 'controlled observation'
Behaviour is observed under controlled conditions where certain variables have been regulated by the researcher
74
Covert vs Overt observations
Covert -Observing people WITHOUT their knowledge or consent
Overt - Observing people WITH their consent and knowledge.
75
Participant vs non-participant observations
Participant - Researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing
Non-participant - Researcher remains outside the group they are watching.
76
State one advantage and 2 disadvantages of using a naturalistic observation
High ecological validity if covert- gives realistic picture of behaviour as it's being observed in a context where it would normally occur
- Hard to replicate
- Uncontrolled extraneous variables.
77
State 1 disadvantage and 2 advantages of using a controlled observation.
- Low ecological validity
1) Easy to replicate
2) Can focus on particular aspects of behaviour
78
State 1 advantage and disadvantage of using a covert observation.
Reduces likelihood of demand characteristics- increases validity of results.
Ethical issues as cannot give informed consent. (Allowed to observe in a circumstance they would expect to be watched by strangers - can seek retrospective consent)
79
State 1 advantage and disadvantage of using an overt observation
- More ethical
- Demand characteristics- ptpts are aware they're being studied and so may change behaviour- reduces validity of results
80
State 1 advantage and disadvantage of participant observations
Increased insight from the 'inside' into the lives of people being studied that may not otherwise have been gained
Researcher may lose objectivity - "going native". When the line between being a researcher and participant becomes blurred.
81
State 1 advantage and disadvantage of using a non-participant observation
More likely to be objective as not part of the group they are observing
May lose insight as they are too removed from the people they are studying.
82
What is an unstructured observation?
The researcher records any relevant behaviour with no system
83
What is a structured observation?
A researcher uses systems to organise observations e.g. behavioural categories and sampling procedures
84
What are behavioural categories?
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable
85
State 1 advantage and 2 disadvantage of using unstructured observations
Richer qualitative data is collected
1) Qualitative data= hard to record and analyse
2) Observer bias= researcher may only record those behaviours that catch their eye which may not be the most important or useful
86
State two advantages of using structured observations
1) Produces quantitative data which is easier to analyse
2) Less chance of observer bias
87
What are two sampling methods for a structured observation?
1) Event sampling
2) Time sampling
88
What is event sampling?
The researcher records every time the target behaviour or event occurs
89
What is 1 advantage and disadvantage of event sampling?
Useful when target behaviours happens infrequently (behaviour is rare and so may be missed if use time sampling)
If the target behaviour is occurring frequently, it may be difficult to record everything
90
What is time sampling?
The researcher records target behaviours in a given time frame e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 15 seconds
91
What is a disadvantage of time sampling?
Instances when behaviour is sampled might be unrepresentative of observation as a whole
92
Define 'self-report' and examples
A method in which a person is asked to state/explain their feelings/opinions/behaviours.
Eg. Interviews and questionnaires.
93
Define 'open question'.
A question that does NOT have a set range of answers.
94
What are 3 types of closed questions?
1. Likert scale - uses a 5-point scale from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
2. Rating scale - participants give a value to represent their strength of feeling on a topic.
3. Fixed choice option - a list of possible options are given for participants to choose from.
95
What is a structured interview?
Made up of a pre-determined set of questions asked in a fixed order.
96
What is an unstructured interview?
No set questions. New questions developed based on previous answers.
97
What is a semi-structured interview?
Has a set of questions but also free to ask follow-up questions.
98
What is an interview schedule and why should it be standardised?
The list of questions that the interviewer intends to cover. Should be standardised to reduce the effect of interviewer bias.
99
What are 2 strengths of using questionnaires?
1. Cost-effective - gather large amounts of data quickly. Can be easily distributed.
2. Respondents more willing to give personal information in a questionnaire than in an interview where they might feel self-conscious.
100
What are 2 limitations of using questionnaires?
- Social desirability bias
- Acquiescence bias
101
What are two strengths of using structured interviews?
1. Easy to replicate due to standardised format.
2. Easier to analyse as answers are more predictable.
102
What are two limitations of using structured interviews?
1. Not possible to deviate from the topic which may limit richness and validity of data
2. Predetermined questions may not be relevant data for the investigation.
103
3 Strengths of using unstructured interviews?
- More flexible - allow interviewer to gain insight.
- Increased validity as interviewer can clarify or probe for a deeper understanding
- Rich qualitative data collected.
104
What are 2 limitations of using unstructured interviews?
1. Interviewer bias in terms of questions asked and interpretation of responses to form follow up questions
2. Difficult to draw conclusions from potentially irrelevant info.
105
5 things to avoid when constructing a questionnaire.
- Leading questions
- Emotive language
- Jargon/fancy language
- Double-barrelled questions
- Double negatives
106
How can double-barrelled questions be an issue when designing questions?
If a question contains two questions in one, the respondent may agree with the first part but not the second.
107
What is a correlation?
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between 2 variables, called co-variables.
108
Which type of graph is used to present correlations?
A scattergram.
109
What is a positive correlation?
As one co-variable increases or decreases, so does the other.
110
What is a negative correlation?
As one co-variable increases or decreases, the other does the opposite.
111
What is a zero correlation?
When there is no relationship between the co-variables.
112
What are intervening variables?
Other variables which may have an effect on the co-variables.
113
What is the difference between a correlation and experiment?
In an experiment, there is a manipulation of the IV to measure the effect on the DV, whereas with correlations there is no manipulation.
114
1 Strength and 2 limitations of correlations
1. Useful preliminary tool for research. Can lead to further research in a specific area
115
What are 2 limitations of correlations?
1. They do not provide a cause and effect relationship between variables. This can lead to misinterpretation in the media if presented as facts.
2. Intervening variables. The 2 co-variables could be linked due to unknown intervening variables.
116
What is qualitative vs quantitative data?
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical.
Data that is expressed numerically
117
What 1 strength and 2 limitations of using qualitative data?
High external validity - offers more richness of detail and meaningful insight.
1) Difficult to analyse. 2) Risk of subjective interpretation and bias.
118
What are 2 strengths and 1 limitation of using quantitative data?
1) Simple to analyse. 2) Objective and less open to bias.
Narrower in scope, reduces insight.
119
What is primary and secondary data?
Data that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purpose of the investigation.
Data that has been obtained by someone other than the person conducting the research. for a purpose other that the current one.
120
What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of primary data?
- Data is specific to the research question.
-Time consuming and expensive to collect
121
What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of secondary data?
- Easy and cheaper to access.
- Content may not match researchers needs.
122
What is a meta-analysis?
A process of combining results from a number of studies on a particular topic.
123
What is a strength of using a meta-analysis?
Increases validity of conclusions because they are based on a wider sample.
124
What is a limitation of using a meta-analysis?
Research designs in the different studies may vary. This means they are not truly comparable possibly leading to invalid conclusions
125
What are descriptive statistics?
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends in a data set.
126
What are measures of central tendency?
A descriptive statistic that provides information about an ‘average’ value for a data set. (MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE)
127
What is the mean?
The arithmetic average of a data set that takes all data into account
128
What is the median?
The middle value of a data set when the items are placed in rank order.
129
What is the mode?
The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
130
What are measures of dispersion?
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are.
131
Outline the 2 measures of dispersion?
Range (difference between highest and lowest item in a data set) and standard deviation (tells us how much scores deviate from the mean.)
132
1 Strength and 1 limitation of using the mean
Most sensitive measure of central tendency. Takes into account all values.
Easily distorted by extreme values (lead us to misinterpret data as a whole)
133
What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of using the mode?
More useful for nominal data.
Not always representative of the whole data
134
What is a limitation of using the range?
Only takes into account the two most extreme values.
135
What is 1 strength and 1 limitation of using the standard deviation?
A precise measure of dispersion.
Can be distorted by extreme values
136
What are 5 ways of presenting quantitative data? Discrete, continuous, correlation
1. In a table (All)
2. Bar charts (Discrete)
3. Scattergrams (Correlation)
4. Histograms (Continuous)
5. Line graphs (continuous)
137
What is a normal vs skewed distribution?
Normal - A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern.
Skewed - A spread of data that is not symmetrical
138
Where do mean median and mode go on a positive vs negative skew
From left to right on graph:
Positive - Mode, Median, Mean
Negative - Mean, Median, Mode
139
What is a negative skew?
A type of distribution where the long tail is on the negative side of the peak and most distribution is concentrated on the right. Mean lower than median and mode.
140
What is a peer review?
The practice of using independent experts to assess the quality and validity of scientific research.
141
What are the 3 main aims of peer review?
1. To allocate research funding
2. To validate the quality and relevance of research 3. To suggest amendments or improvements.
142
3 Strengths of peer review
Ensures research is high quality. Research is scrutinised to increase the probability that weaknesses will be identified and addressed.
Helps to prevent the publication of fraudulent research.
Ensured that published research is taken seriously.
143
2 Limitations of peer review
Anonymity - Reviewers may use their anonymity to criticise rival researchers.
Publication bias - Tendency for editors to publish 'headline grabbing' findings. May ignore ground-breaking research to suppress opposition to mainstream theories.
144
Why do we use statistical testing?
To determine whether differences between variables are statistically significant or occurred by chance.
145
What is the difference between a one-tailed and two-tailed test?
One-tailed test = directional hypothesis
Two-tailed test = non-directional hypothesis.
146
What is the sign test?
A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items.
147
What are 3 conditions for using a sign test?
1. Need to be looking for a difference. 2. Use a repeated measures design. 3. Nominal data.
148
What is probability?
The likelihood that the data obtained is due to chance rather that the manipulation of the IV
149
What is the accepted level of probability in Psychology?
0.05.
150
What does it mean if the researcher accepts alternative
the hypothesis?
There is less than 5% probability that the results occurred by chance.
151
Why might a researcher adopt a significance level of 0.01?
When researchers need to be more confident that results were not due to chance. For example, where there is a human cost (drug trials) or results are theoretically very important
152
Which 3 pieces of information do you need to locate the critical value?
1. The significance level desired
2. The number of participants
3. Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional.
153
Why can psychologists never be 100% certain about their results?
They have not tested all members of the population under all possible arrangements.
154
What are the 3 levels of measurement?
1. Nominal 2. Ordinal 3. Interval.
155
What is nominal data?
Named, distinct categories (sex, gender, eye colour)
156
What is ordinal data?
The order of the data matters, but the actual value isn’t measurable (aggression, test scores)
157
What is interval data?
Measured along a scale where the distance between one value and the next is equal. Standardised. (Temperature)
158
Which two experimental designs are known as related?
Repeated measures and matched pairs design.
159
Choosing a statistical test mnemonic
Chairs Save Children
Meanwhile Waiting Standing risks
Uncomfortability Right Peter
160
Choosing a statistical test
Chi squared, Sign Test, Chi squared
Mann-Whitney, Wilcoxon, Spearmans rho
Unrelated t test, Related t test, Pearsons r
161
What is a parametric test?
A group of inferential statistics that make certain assumptions about the parameters (characteristics) of the population from which the sample is drawn
162
What is a case study?
An in-depth investigation of an individual, institution or event
163
What are 3 strengths of using a case study?
1. Provides rich, in-depth information- gives new insight into unusual and atypical forms of behaviour
2. May generate hypotheses for future study and trigger the revision of an entire theory
3. May be unethical to manipulate the variables
164
What are two limitations of using a case study?
1. Difficult to generalise from individual cases
2. Information that makes it into the report is based on subjective selection and interpretation of researcher
165
What is a content analysis?
A kind of observational study of qualitative data in which behaviour is observed indirectly via communications.
166
What is a quantitative way of analysing data?
Coding- the analysis of communication by placing into categories and then counting
167
What is a qualitative way of analysing the data?
Thematic analysis- involves identifying implicit/explicit ideas within data (often after coding)
168
What are the 5 steps of carrying out a content analysis?
1. Collect data
2. Researcher reads through and familiarises themselves with data
3. Researcher identifies coding units
4. Re-analyse data and apply coding units
5. Tally the number of times a coding unit appears
169
What are the two strengths of using content analysis?
1. High ecological validity- based on observation of what people actually do
2. When resources can be accessed by others the content analysis can be replicated- tested for reliability
170
What are the two limitations of using content analysis?
1. Observer bias- different observers may interpret meaning of behavioural categories differently
2. Culture biased- interpretation of written or verbal content will be affected by the language and culture of observer
171
What is reliability?
The consistency of measurements. We would expect any measurement to produce the same data every time it is used.
172
What are the two ways of assessing reliability?
1. Test-retest
2. Inter-observer reliability, inter-interviewer (for interviews), inter-rater (for content analysis)
173
What is test-retest reliability?
The same assessment given to the same participants on two occasions to see if the same results are obtained. These results are correlated and if they have a correlation coefficient of .80 or more= high test-retest reliability
174
What is inter-observer reliability?
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. If the scores have a correlation coefficient of .80 or more= good inter-observer reliability.
175
For test-retest, how is a correlation carried out to assess the reliability of for example a questionnaire?
Each participant's score from the first questionnaire should be correlated with their results from second questionnaire. Shown on a scattergraph- scores from the first test plotted on one axis and scores from second plotted on other. Strength of correlation assessed using either Spearman's rho or Pearson's r test.
176
How can researchers improve the reliability of an observation?
Ensure the behavioural categories are operationalised clearly – no overlapping and are measurable.
177
How can researchers improve the reliability of a questionnaire?
Ensure questions are not too complex- replace some of the open, ambiguous questions with closed, fixed choice alternatives.
178
How can researchers improve the reliability of an interview?
If possible use the same interviewer each time. If not then ensure interviewers are properly trained and use more structured interviews.
179
How can researchers improve the reliability of experiments?
Ensure procedures are standardised
180
What is validity?
Refers to the extent to which an observed effect is genuine
181
What is internal validity?
The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure-are the effects due to the manipulation of the IV and not some other factor.
182
What is external validity?
The extent to which results can be generalised outside of the research setting
183
What are two forms of external validity?
1. Temporal validity
2. Ecological validity
184
What is temporal validity?
A form of external validity- the extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other particular time periods
185
What is ecological validity?
A form of external validity- the extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other settings
186
What is mundane realism?
Refers to how realistic the task in the experiment is
187
Outline the two ways of assessing validity
1. Face validity - the extent to which test items look like what the test claims to measure
2. Concurrent validity - The extent to which a psychological study relates to an existing similar measure.
188
How can researchers improve the validity of experiments?
1. Use a control group- can compare changes in DV due to effects of IV
2. Standardised procedures- minimise participant and investigator effects
Single blind procedure (reduces demand characteristic) and double-blind procedure (reduces demand characteristics and investigator effects)
189
2 ways researchers improve the validity of questionnaires
1. Include a lie-scale- assess consistency of responses and reduces effects of social desirability bias
2.Ensure anonymity
190
2 ways researchers improve the validity of observations
1. Use a covert observation- participants’ behaviour more likely to be natural and authentic
Ensure behavioural categories are not too broad, not overlapping or ambiguous.
191
2 ways researchers can improve the validity of qualitative methods?
1. Demonstrate interpretive validity- researcher’s interpretation of events matches participant’s. Researcher must include direct quotes from participant’s reports
2. Triangulation- Use number of different sources as evidence (interviews with family, friends, personal diaries, observations etc.).
192
What is the difference between the null and alternative hypothesis?
The null hypothesis states there will be 'no difference' between the conditions, whereas the alternative hypothesis states there will be a difference (either directional or non-directional)
193
What is the purpose of a statistical test?
To determine which hypothesis is 'true' and thus whether we accept or reject the null hypothesis
194
What is a Type I error?
Too lenient. Wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis (also known as a 'false positive', finding it significant when it wasn’t).
195
What is a Type II error?
Too strict wrongly accepting the null hypothesis (known as 'false negative', finding it not significant when it was)
196
What are the 7 sections which make up a scientific report?
Abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, referencing, appendix
197
What is an abstract?
A short summary of all the major elements of the study (aim, hypothesis, methods, results and conclusion). Written after report is complete. Means researchers don't have to read hundreds of full reports
198
What is an introduction?
A literature review of the general area of investigation- looks at past research on a similar topic.
Includes the aim and hypothesis
199
What is the method?
A description of what the researcher did including design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure and ethics.
Must show replicability
200
What are the results?
A summary of the key findings of the investigation, including descriptive and inferential statistics
201
What is the discussion?
Discussing the results in the context of the evidence presented in the introduction. Includes awareness of limitations of study and suggests how to address these. Includes the wider implications of the research
202
What are the references?
A list of sources that are referred to or quoted in the articles
203
What format does the reference of a book have?
author(s), date, title of book (in italics), place of publication, publisher
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What format does the reference of a journal article have?
Author(s), date, title of article, journal title (in italics), volume (issue number) (italics), page numbers
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What are 3 purposes for having a references section?
1. Avoid plagiarism
2. Credit other researchers' work
3. Allow readers to look up and read studies mentioned in report
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What is a paradigm?
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
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What is a paradigm shift?
The result of a scientific revolution- a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline
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What is theory construction?
Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts. A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts.
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What is hypothesis testing?
Process of modifying theories by testing their validity. If a Scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis, the theory requires modification.
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What is falsifiability?
The possibility that a statement or hypothesis can be proved wrong. This is why we start with a null hypothesis
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Why is falsifiability important in Science?
Karl Popper argued that the only way to prove a theory correct was to seek disproof (falsification)
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What is replicability?
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers in a number of contexts and circumstances- increases the validity of a study
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What is objectivity?
When all sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process.
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What is the empirical method?
Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method= a method of gaining knowledge which relies on direct observation or testing
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What are the 6 features of a science?
Empirical method, objectivity, replicability, theory construction, hypothesis testing, falsifiability.
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What is the economy?
The production, distribution and consumption of goods and services
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How has psychopathology research had implications for the economy?
1/3 of absences from work are due to mental health and cost the government £15 billion a year. Drug treatments and therapies have allowed sufferers to manage their conditions and return to work.
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When are researchers most likely to make type 1/ type 2 errors
Type 1 - when the significance level is too lenient (0.1)
Type 2 - when the significance level is too strict
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What is significance?
The researcher can state that the relationship between the variable is more than just chance.
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What is the appendix of a study?
Any material used for any part of the research. - consent forms, debrief forms, questionnaires, raw data ect.)
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Peer review - "Allocation of research funding" meaning
Research is paid for by various government and charitable bodies. These organisations have a duty to spend money responsibly and on research that is worthwhile.
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Peer review "validate the quality and relevance of research" meaning
All elements of research are assessed for quality and accuracy.
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Peer review " Suggesting amendments and improvements meaning"
May suggest minor revisions to improve the work. In extreme cases they may suggest the work is inappropriate for publicationa nd should be withdrawn
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What is social desirability bias?
Wanting to appear more positive or perfect that reality in order to be accepted/admired. Reduces validity as they may not give truthful answers.
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What is a correlation co-efficient
A number between -1(perfect negative) and +1(perfect positive) that tells us the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables
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What is an interview?
A "real time" interaction where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thought and experiences
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What is a questionnaire
Written questions to assess a persons thoughts/ experiences
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What is population validity?
The extent to which findings from a study can be generalised to other people
