Research methods

Question 1

What is the experimental method?

Answer 1

It is the scientific method involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. In an experiment the researcher manipulates an independant variable to see its effects on the dependant variable.

Question 2

What is an independant variable?

Answer 2

It is the variable that is manipulated by a researcher to investigate whether it is consequently brings change in another variable.

Question 3

What is an dependant variable?

Answer 3

The variable that is being measured.

Question 4

What does operationalise a variable mean?

Answer 4

When a variable is defined by the researcher and a way of measuring that variable is developed for the research.

Question 5

What is an extraneous variable?

Answer 5

Any variable other than the independent variable may affect the results.

Question 6

What is a confounding variable?

Answer 6

Where extraneous variables are significant enough to actually cause a change in the dependant variable, they become confounding variables.

Question 7

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 7

Occurs when the participants try to make sense of the research and act accordingly to support the aim of the research- the ‘screw you’ or ‘please you’.

Question 8

What are the four types of experiments?

Answer 8

Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
Natural experiment
Quasi experiment

Question 9

What is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 9

Conducted under controlled conditions in which the researcher deliberately changes something to see the effect of this on something else.

Question 10

Evaluate the laboratory experiment.

Answer 10

It has high control over the environment and other extraneous variable so therefore can establish cause and effect.
It is replicable, due to the high control and so as it can be repeated which increases the validity.
However there may be experimenter bias even if it is subconsciously.
Demand characteristics are likely to be present.

Question 11

What are field experiments?

Answer 11

These are carried out in a natural setting, in which the researcher manipulates something to see the effect of this on something else.

Question 12

Evaluate field experiments

Answer 12

There is reasonable internal and external validity as there is some degree of control, but it is still conducted in a natural environment.
However there is less control in comparison to lab experiments and therefore extraneous variables are more likely to dissort findings.
There may be ethical issues if the participants are unaware that they are being studied so they cannot give consent, and so research may invade privacy.

Question 13

What are natural experiments?

Answer 13

An experiment where the independent variable varies naturally. The researcher is taking advantage of a pre-existing independent variable that is external. The IV is not brought about by the researcher, it would of happened anyways.

Question 14

Evaluate natural experiments.

Answer 14

They have high external validity as it is real life situations which are being studied.
It also allows research that would have otherwise be seen as unethical to be carried out.
A naturally occurring event may happen very rarely, reducing opportunities for research.
The participants are not randomly allocated to experimental conditions so it is harder to know if the IV affects the DV.

Question 15

What are quasi experiments?

Answer 15

When the IV is based on existing differences between people that occurs in their disposition, such as age, gender, personality traits, etc. No one manipulates the IV, it just exists.

Question 16

Evaluate the quasi experiment.

Answer 16

It is useful for when it would have been unethical to manipulate the IV.
It studies the real effects so there is increased realism and and ecological validity.
However is rarely happens as a naturally occurring internal IV may be rare.
Confounding environmental variables are more likely which means a decrease in reliability.

Question 17

What are observational techniques?

Answer 17

Observational studies involve simply watching and recording people’s behaviours. It is usually carried out by observing peoples natural behaviour in their natural environment.

Question 18

Why do psychologists find this technique useful?

Answer 18

Because it is useful to study natural behaviour in natural environment for a more realistic view. Can also study behviours where it would have been unethical to manipulate.

Question 19

Name and explain the sampling techniques.

Answer 19

Event sampling- Counting behaviour in a set time frame.
Time sampling- Counting the number of times a specific event occurs in the group that is relevant to the research.

Question 20

What are all the types of observation.

Answer 20

Controlled/Naturalistic
Participant/Non-participant
Covert/Overt

Question 21

What is the difference between a controlled and naturalistic observation?

Answer 21

Controlled observations have some variables in the environment which are regulated by the researcher. Naturalistic observations observe people in their natural environment without no interference.

Question 22

Evaluate controlled and naturalistic observations.

Answer 22

Controlled- The researcher can be more confident of a cause-effect relationship with a controlled observation.
Replicable procedures can be set up which adhere more to a scientific method

The use of controlled conditions and artificial tasks means that controlled observations are low in ecological validity
Demand characteristics may impair a controlled observation

Question 23

What is the difference between a participant and non-participant observation?

Answer 23

In a participant observation the researcher joins the group they are observing, becoming part of them. Participants may not be aware that the researcher is an ‘outsider’.
In a non-participant observation the researcher stays separate and apart from the group they are observing.

Question 24

Evaluate participant and non-participant observations.

Answer 24

Participant- increases the validity of the study as access to real thoughts, feelings, and conversations is possible
Participant observations could result in the researcher having a restricted view of what they wish to observe and thus missing some important behaviours
Researcher bias

Question 25

What is the difference between covert and overt observations?

Answer 25

Covert observations are when the participants are not aware that they are being observed. Overt observations are when the participants are aware that they are being observed.

Question 26

Evaluate covert and overt observation .

Answer 26

Covert- high in ecological validity Less likely for demand characteristics. Ethical issues- cannot give conformed consent Overt- Ethics can be preserved as the researcher makes themselves known to the participants, who are aware that they are being observed demand characteristics more likely to be present

Question 27

What are self report techniques?

Answer 27

Research method in which participants give information about themselves without researcher interference.

Question 28

What are the two self- report techniques?

Answer 28

Questionares Interviews

Question 29

What is a questionaire?

Answer 29

Questionnaires are a list of pre-determined questions to which participants respond to. Questions are likely to be about behaviour, opinions or attitudes.

Question 30

Explain the two types of questions in questionnaires?

Answer 30

Closed and open questions. Closed questions- Involves simple yes or no answers or a range of fixed responses. Open questions- Allows participants to answer in their own words.

Question 31

Evaluate the two types of questions in questionares?

Answer 31

Closed questions- Quantitative data, so it is easy to analyse. Easy to replicate so increased reliability. Lacks depth and detail associated with answers. Open questions- Rich in depth Less likely to have misunderstandings

Question 32

Evaluate questionnaires as a self-report technique.

Answer 32

It is quick and cost efficient as it does not require training. Easy to replicate Participants may succumb to social desirability so results may not be true. Easy for misunderstandings to happen.

Question 33

What are interviews and what are the two types?

Answer 33

Interviews are researchers asking questions face-to-face and they involve social interaction. There are two types of interviews- structured and unstructured. Structured interviews are when there are set interview questions and the interviewer cannot deviate from these. Unstructured are more like a guided conversation, where questions can be asked in any order and questions can be added.

Question 34

Evaluate the two types of interviews.

Answer 34

Structured interviews require less training so cheaper and quicker. Can be easily replicated. Restrictive, follow up questions for more depth cannot be asked. So limits usefulness. Unstructured interviews- Allows for complex issues to be explored High ecological validity, Participants have complete freedom to respond in any way they choose so no manipulation from researcher. Interviewer effects Not suitable for participants who have difficulty putting feelings into words.

Question 35

What are case studies?

Answer 35

Case studies are detailed and in-depth investigations of a small group or an individual. Case studies allow researchers to examine individuals who have undergone a unique or rare experience or who are unusual in some way. For example- someone who spent their childhood living in a cult.

Question 36

How is data for case studies collected?

Answer 36

Qualitative data may be collected using interviews, observations, open-ended questions on a questionnaire This means that case studies are a good means of reporting subjective, individual experience that is highly personal. They can also generate quantitative data e.g. memory tests, IQ tests, closed questions on a questionnaire.

Question 37

How long do case studies usually tend to last?

Answer 37

Case studies are longitudinal, which means that a participant's experience/progress is tracked and measured over time. So they can last from weeks, months or years.

Question 38

Evaluate case studies.

Answer 38

They provide data which is rich in detail which can either provide support to research or go against it. They allow us to collect data in scenarios which would be unethical or impractical to manipulate by the investigators The cannot be generalised to the general population as the data is only collected from one individual, so not representative of all people. Cannot be replicated May be extraneous variables.

Question 39

What are correlational studies?

Answer 39

Correlational studies measure the strength and direction of relationships between co-variables. It is the measure of the extent in which two variables have a relationship.

Question 40

What are the three types of correlation?

Answer 40

Positive correlations- If the increase in one co-variable is associated with the increase in another co-variable Negative correlations- If the decrease in one co-variable is associated with the decrease in another co-variable Zero correlations- When there is no relationship between two variables.

Question 41

How can correlations be expressed?

Answer 41

Correlations can be expressed through drawing scattergrams, plot the figures of the two variable against each other on a graph.

Question 42

What are correlation coefficients?

Answer 42

These are used to express correlations numerically, ranging from +1 to -1. -1- perfect negative +1- perfect positive 0- no relationship

Question 43

What is the difference between correlations and experiments?

Answer 43

Experiments involve deliberate manipulation of an independent variable to measure the impact on the dependent variable. The researcher works towards establishing cause-effect. A correlation measures the strength and direction of a relationship between co-variables compared to an experiment which measures a difference in conditions. A correlation has no researcher manipulation of either co-variable, and cannot estacblish cause-effect.

Question 44

What is an aim in an experiment?

Answer 44

An aim identifies the purpose of the investigation. It is a precise statement of why a study is taking place and what is being studied.

Question 45

What is the hypothesis of an experiment?

Answer 45

A hypothesis is a precise, testable unambiguous statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study. It usually involves proposing a possible relationship between the IV and the DV.

Question 46

What are the two types of hypotheses?

Answer 46

Null hypothesis- This states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied. The results are due to chance and are not significant, so not due to the manipulation of the IV. Alternative hypothesis- This states that there is a relationship between the two variables being studied. The results are not simply due to chance and they are significant.

Question 47

What are the two types of alternative hypotheses?

Answer 47

Directional and non directional.

Question 48

What is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 48

This predicts the direction of the results, and is used when there is previous research which suggests what directions the results will be in.

Question 49

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 49

This predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV however the direction of the effect is not specified. This is used when you do not have enough previous research to suggest what direction your results will be in.

Question 50

What is the difference between the target population and sample?

Answer 50

The target population is the total group of individual from which a sample may be drawn. The sample is the population from the target population which is actually involved in the study.

Question 51

What is sampling bias?

Answer 51

This refers to situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target population.

Question 52

Why is it important to not have sampling bias?

Answer 52

As we want a sample which reflects the characteristics of the target population so that we can generalise what we find from the sample to the target population.

Question 53

What are the different sampling techniques?

Answer 53

Random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Opportunity sampling Volunteer sampling

Question 54

What is random sampling?

Answer 54

In random sampling, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It requires a way of numbering or naming the target population and then using some type of raffle method to choose who makes up the population.

Question 55

Evaluate random sampling.

Answer 55

The selection is unbiased, increases chance of representative sample. Random sampling can be time-consuming and impractical It is not always possible to get access to all the information on a target population. Additionally, not everyone selected for the sample may want to take part in the study Random sampling can result in a non-representative sample due to the nature of the technique the sample could be unbalanced.

Question 56

Evaluate systematic sampling.

Answer 56

This is an unbiased sampling technique as the researcher has no control over where participants are placed on the population list Systematic sampling is a quick, easy and cost-effective technique Not necessarily representative- there is a chance it may be all females chosen for example. Therefore it would not be representative.

Question 56

What is systematic sampling?

Answer 56

You take every nth person from a list and create a sample. Divide the total no of people in the target population by the no of people you want in the sample. Example 500/50= 10. You would then choose every that no person. In this example you would choose every 10th person.

Question 57

What is stratified sampling?

Answer 57

Involves the researcher identifiying the different types of people which make up the target population and then works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative.

Question 58

Evaluate stratified sampling.

Answer 58

The sample is representative of the target population as it is based on exact proportions of the target population. This means that it is easy to generalise data from the sample to the wider population. It is not always possible to get access to all the information on a target population Very time consuming, so rarely used.

Question 59

What is opportunity sampling?

Answer 59

Uses people from the target population who are available at the time and are willing to take part. It is based on convenience. It is obtained by asking members of the population if they would take part in research.

Question 60

Evaluate opportunity sampling.

Answer 60

It is a very quick and relatively easy way of choosing participants. It is not possible to generalise from an opportunity sample as the sample only represents those who were available and willing to participate at the time. The researcher may be prone to unconscious bias when they approach people to take part in the study .

Question 61

What is volunteer sampling.

Answer 61

This involves people volunteering to participate. People select themselves as participants, often by replying to adverts.

Question 62

Evaluate volunteer sampling.

Answer 62

This technique is quick, easy and cost-effective. Participants are likely to be willing and enthusiastic about the research, so less likely to back out. Volunteer participants often have personality traits in common e.g. sociable, outgoing so it is harder to generalise data. Volunteers are often eager to please. This tendency to please the researcher may give rise to demand characteristics.

Question 63

What are pilot studies?

Answer 63

Pilot studies are small-scale trials that are run to test some or all aspects of the proposed investigation.

Question 64

What are the flaws that may arise from pilot studies?

Answer 64

There may be ambiguities or confusion which is in the instructions to the task There may be the 'floor' or the 'ceiling' effect which is when task is either too hard or too easy where everyone can do it or no one can do it. It may be easy to guess the aim of the experiment which can lead to demand characteristics.

Question 65

Why are pilot studies useful?

Answer 65

Because they can possibly save time and money by identifying any flaws in the procedure before running it on a large scale.

Question 66

What is experimental design?

Answer 66

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions in an experiment.

Question 67

What are the three main experimental design?

Answer 67

Independent group design Repeated measure design Matched pair design

Question 68

What is independent group design?

Answer 68

This is when different participants are used in each condition of the independent group variable. So each participant only does one condition. They should be allocated randomly.

Question 69

Evaluate independent group design

Answer 69

No order effects Less chance of demand characteristics More participants needed Results may be due to individual differences rather than manipulation of the IV.

Question 70

What is repeated measure design?

Answer 70

This is when the same participants take part in each condition of the IV.

Question 71

Evaluate the repeated measure design?

Answer 71

There will be no individual differences to account for. Less people are required Order effect may happen More likely for demand characteristics.

Question 72

What is matched pair design?

Answer 72

It is a special kind of independent group design. Different participants are used in each condition but they are similar. The participants are matched on characteristics which are relevant to the specific study.

Question 73

Evaluate matched pair design.

Answer 73

No order effect Less likely to demonstrate demand characteristics Matching is difficult Time consuming

Question 74

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 74

Features of a piece of research which will allow to participants to work out its aim, so participants may change their behaviour accordingly. They may try to please the researcher by giving the 'right results' They may try to annoy the researcher by giving the wrong results. Some may act unnaturally due to being nervous Some may act unnaturally due to social desiaribility bias.

Question 75

How can you control demand characteristics?

Answer 75

Single-blind procedure, where the participants have no idea which condition of the study they are in.

Question 76

What are investigator effects?

Answer 76

These are ways in which the investigator unconsciously affect the results of the study. May include- physical characteristics, personal characteristics and also investigators may be unconsciously biased in their interpretation of data and what they expect to find.

Question 77

How can investigator effects be controlled?

Answer 77

The double-blind procedure, where neither the participants nor the investigators know what conditions the participants are in.

Question 78

What is randomisation and how can it help?

Answer 78

It is making as many things as possible random. For example if there was a list of word the investigator should not choose the order of this, it should be random. This helps to control for order effects.