Research methods.

Question 1

stratified sampling?

Answer 1

dividing the target population into strata or sub categories, which are then selected in proportion.
+makes an effort to be representational
- identification of these categories may be due to researcher bias.

Question 2

Random sample?

Answer 2

every member of the population has an equal chance at getting picked
+provided best chance of an unbiased sample
-very easy to be unrepresentative, especially if a large population.

Question 3

opportunity sample?

Answer 3

a researcher selecting participants who are available to them at the time of the study.
+quick, convenient and efficient
-likely to be biased and unrepresentative

Question 4

Volunteer sample?

Answer 4

People who have consciously selected to be a part of the study.
+allow access to a wide variety of participants
- may be more confident and have similar traits.

Question 5

IV/DV?

Answer 5

IV- variable manipulated by the experimenter
DV- the outcome measured by the experimenter

Question 6

extranous varibales vs confouding?

Answer 6

extranous: any variables that might have an effect on the DV except from the IV
coundfounding- uncontrolled extranous variables that have had an effect on the results.

Question 7

types of extranous variables and how they are controlled?

Answer 7

Situational- variables in situation itself which effect the DV. controlled by standardised procedures and use of pilot studies.
participant- variables from individual participants- controlled through random allocation of participants to conditions
Order effects- Order of which experiment carried out in may effect results. controlled by counterbalancing
demand characteristics- cues participant may receive that indicate the purpose of the research. controlled by deception.
researcher effects: researcher may know aims of study, may struggle to remain objective and influence results- controlled by standardisation and double blind.

Question 8

Questionnaire design?

Answer 8

-fit for purpose
-filler questions
-sequence of questions
-standardised procedures
-pilot studies
-ethical issues
-clarity
-avoid bias.

Question 9

+/- of questionaires?

Answer 9

+highly reliable
+standardised
+efficient and cheap
+can gather quant/qualitative data
+can access large number
-closed questions limit validity
-socially desirable
-misunderstand questions

Question 10

analysing qualitative data?

Answer 10

Thematic analysis: identifying and assessing patterns in qualitative data.
-familiarisation
-coding
-searching for themes
-reviewing themes
-defining and naming themes
-write up.
+data remains rich and useful- braun and Clarke 2006
+easier to draw conclusions
+derive themes from data
-researcher bias
-reliabilty
-time consuming and highly skilled

Question 11

lab experiments?

Answer 11

= a controlled setting which allows of the manipulation of IV, whilst controlling extranous variables.
+shows causes- cause and effect
+standardisation promotes reliability
+high in scientific credibility
-artifial
-lack mundane realism
-experimenter effects
-demand characteristics
-ethics

Question 12

Field experiments?

Answer 12

= deliberately manipulated IV, but in natural environment .
+greater ecological validity
+demand characteristics may be lower
+allow for some control
-lower internal validity
-less reliable
-experimenter effects
-ethical issues

Question 13

experimental designs? +/-

Answer 13

=independant groups/ measures= different participants in each condition.
+no order effects as only one condition
+reduced demand characteristics
+same test can be used
-effected by participant variables
-more required- more expensive
=repeated measures= the same participants in each part of the experiment
+fewer participant variables
+fewer participants required
-demand characteristics may be more obvious
-order effects
-different tests required
=matched pairs=using different participants but ensuring characteristics are matched..
+controls participant variables
+no order effects
+controlled demand characteristics
+same test used
-very different to match
-biased
-more participants
-attrition, drop out of ps

Question 14

case studies? +/-

Answer 14

+useful, investigate unique experiences
+variety of different methods can be triangulated together
+evidence gathered qualitative
+highly valid
- formed relationships
-less validity
-less generalisable
-difficilt to replicate

Question 15

descriptive statistics?

Answer 15

describe main trends in the data, summarising raw data into a more meaningful form.
include measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion and graphical representations of data.

Question 16

measures of central tendency?

Answer 16

Value which is most typical of data set. e.g
mean- often known as the average
+takes into account all of the data, however can be extremely distorted, may not reflect real life.
median- central value for set of data
+not distorted by extreme scores
-less sensitive to each data
-doesnt work for smaller sets
mode-: most frequently occurring value or category
+useful for frequency counts or mutually exclusive

Question 17

measures of dispersion?

Answer 17

=measures to see if scores are clustered closely around the mean or scattered widely.
The range-: distance between largest and smallest scales
+quick and easy
-little meaningful Data
-distorted by anomalies
standard deviation: measure of how much on average each score deviates from the mean
+most sensitive and representative
+less distorted by skewed data
-not quick and easy to calculate

Question 18

displaying data?

Answer 18

-frequency diagrams
-bar charts
-pie charts
-scatter diagrams
-histograms

Question 19

skewed distribution:

Answer 19

normal distribution: mean median and mode are equal
postively skewed: mode, median, mean
negatively distributed: mean, median, mode.

Question 20

BPS code of conduct?

Answer 20

Respect
Competence
Responsibility
integrity

Question 21

use of animals?

Answer 21

-more ethical than humans
-similar to humans
-animals are good participants
-theoretical knowledge
-practical applications.
=scientific procedures act 1986.

Question 22

3 rs?

Answer 22

replaced: with non animal alternatives if possible
reduced: number of animals reduced
refined: to reduce suffering as much as possible.

Question 23

3 licences?

Answer 23

personal liscence (for each person)
project licence
establishment licenses

Question 24

risk assessment?

Answer 24

-identify the risk
-assess the risk (cost/benefit analysis)
-plan response
-implement response

Question 25

reliability?

Answer 25

= if a research finding is produced constantly over numerous studies. +inter-observer reliability +test retest method +split-half method

Question 26

validity?

Answer 26

=extent the study measures what it claims to measure +internal validity: extent a study measures what it is supposed to +concurrent validity: comparison to other established measures +predicitive validity: how well is predicts future behaviour +ecological validity: extent it can generalise to other environments.

Question 27

Quantitative data?

Answer 27

=formed in numbers, quantifies the behaviour being studied by making It numerical +allows more objectivity +easier to replicate -lacks richness -doesnt provide full picture -reduces and oversimplifies data.

Question 28

Qualitative data?

Answer 28

=formed by words, emphasis of description to explain behaviour. +rich and detailed +increased validity -difficult to analyse -open to interpretation

Question 29

empiricism?

Answer 29

Knowledge that is directly observable.

Question 30

falsifiable?

Answer 30

should only ever aim to prove that something is not the case.

Question 31

reductionism?

Answer 31

breaking something down into its component parts so that it can be studied.

Question 32

holism?

Answer 32

to study something in its entirety

Question 33

observtations? types?

Answer 33

=observation of a persons freely chosen behaviour. -naturalistic: observation in an a natural situation +high eco v +generalisable -may be difficult -extranous variables -lack of cause and effect -structured:some variables are controlled. +allow for more control -less eco v - extraneous variables never fully removed.

Question 34

participant/ non participant observations?

Answer 34

participant- observer becomes part of the group, often as a confederate +more meaningful +high ecological validity -less objective -harder to record non participant- observer is not involved in the action +more accurate +more objective -less understanding -ethics.

Question 35

overt/covert?

Answer 35

overt: participants are fully aware that they are being observed +follows ethics -socially desirable covert: participants are not aware they are being observed +doesnt affect behaviour -deception -harder to observe/ recall.

Question 36

types of sampling?

Answer 36

-continous observations: records all instances of behavour time sampling: recording for set lengths of time with intervals event sampling: recording beahvour every time it occurs tallying: like event sampling...

Question 37

content analysis?

Answer 37

=systemaitc quantitative descirption of either the media or primary research data. -research question/ hypothesis -sampling -coding units -pilot studies -collecting the data +very useful and can be statistically analysed +external validity high +easy to replicate -cannot show cause and effect -researcher effects -may be limited by unrepresentative sample

Question 38

FMRI scans?

Answer 38

=detects changes in blood oxygenation, when an area is more active it has increased blood flow and activity. The fmri detects the rate at which oxyhaemoglobin becomes deoyhaemoglobin, this is called BOLD (blood oxygen level dependant) contrast imageing. The higher the BOLD, the more the activity. The magnetic field can detect the release of radio waves as a result of the process. +non invasive, no exposure to radiation +sensitivity to blood flow is very precise. -cannot look at activity in receptors unlike PET scans -images have to be interpreted and analysed -have to remain very still - cannot wear metal.

Question 39

CAT scans?

Answer 39

A scan which collects a large number of images at once,, combined by computer software to create one 3d image. +less harmful than PET scans +provides very detailed images +less sensitive to movement +can be performed with medical devices implanted -soft tissue is less visible -slight chance of cancer

Question 40

PET scans

Answer 40

=a radiocative tracer injected, accumulates at parts of the brain where glucose is being used, gives of small energy in form of gamma rays. Sensed by detectors which create colourful images of the brain. Hot and cold spots. +valid measure of brain activity +reliable as easily replicated - difficult to isolate brain structures -produce complex images open to bias -radiation exposure

Question 41

Twin studies?

Answer 41

Comparing MZ twins and Dz twins, through concordance rates. e.g gottesman and shields. +ethical and highly practical -mz twins may be treated more similar to dz twins -never 100% concordance

Question 42

Adoption studies?

Answer 42

adoption studies: ig genetics have a strong influence on beahvour, then adopted participants will be more similar to biological parents. e.g Ludeke et al - children may be placed with similar families -not typical or reperesentative of target population.

Question 43

Levels of measurement?

Answer 43

-nominal: organised into catagories with a measure of frequency, in mutually exclusive categories -ordinal: data that is ordered in some way, the exact difference between each is known -interval: data is made up on a scale, that have equal intervals. -ratio level: impossible to get a negative scale.

Question 44

Type 1/2 errors:

Answer 44

Type 1: reject the null hypothesis, when the results are actually due to chance (false positive) Type 2: fail to reject the null hypothesis, when results not due to chance(false negative)