Research Methods Flashcards
(108 cards)
1
Q
What is content analysis?
A
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, such as texts, emails, TV, film and other media. The aim is to summarise and describe this communication in a systematic way so overall conclusions can be drawn.
2
Q
Describe coding.
A
Coding is the initial stage involved in content analysis. Very large data sets are catergorised into meaningful units. For example, counting the amount of times a word occurs to produce a quantitative value.
3
Q
Describe thematic analysis.
A
Themes may occur once data has been coded. A theme may be explicit or implicit and occurs when an idea is recurrent. Themes are often more descriptive than codes. E.g. ‘A drain on the resources of the NHS’. Once identified, hey can be placed under broader categories such as ‘control’ or ‘treatment’. Once a researcher has collected a wide range of themes that cover the data he/she is analysing, they will collect new data to check for validity. If this new research supports previous conclusions, a researcher will write up a report using quotes from the data analysed to illustrate each theme.
4
Q
Evaluate case studies.
A
✅ - Rich detail that sheds light on very unusual and atypical forms of behaviour. Proffered to superficial data collected from experiments.
✅ - Add to our understanding of normal behaviour - e.g. HM demonstrating 2 separate stores in the multi store model.
✅ - Create more hypothesis for further testing which can lead to paradigm shifts.
✅ - Ethics - participants not forced in to unethical situations.
❌ - Low generalisability and reliability and control - small samples and longitudinal studies.
❌ - BIAS - researcher and family - recall of past events may be inaccurate - lowers validity.
❌ - Ethics - consent and right to withdraw and privacy.
5
Q
Evaluate content analysis and thematic analysis.
A
✅ - circumnavigates ethical issues associated with psychological research - much content analysed is already in the public domain - no issues with consent.
✅ - High external validity - e.g. Emails and text messages
✅ - flexible - produces both quantitative and qualitative data - objective research.
✅ - Inter-rater reliability.
❌ - Indirect - means conclusions may not make sense because the data was studied outside of the context in which it was created - researcher may infer opinions and motivations that were never actually there.
❌ - Simplistic - quantitative data can lack representation of real life activities. OR LACK OBJECTIVITY.
❌ - Researcher bias - but researchers are clear of this and often refer to it in their final reports.
6
Q
Describe what a case study is.
A
A case study is the analysis of a specific (group of) individual(s), institution or event. These are often unique, such as a person with a rare disorder or the lead up to the 2011 London riots. They are often longitudinal. Mainly qualitative data is collected throughout the use of interviews, observations and questionnaires. Sometimes experimental methods, which test what the case is capable or not capable of, are used to collect quantitative data.
7
Q
Define reliability.
A
The extent to which findings from an investigation or measuring device are reliable. A measuring device is said to be reliable if it measures consistent results every time it is used.
8
Q
Describe the test-retest.
A
Test-retests are used to measure the reliability of a measuring tool. It involves administrating the same experiment or questionnaire to the same group of people on a different occasion.
There must be enough time between tests for the participants not to remember the aims or answers to questions but also not for their opinions or abilities to have changed. The scores from both tests must be correlated and if they are significant, they are classed as having good reliability.
9
Q
Describe inter-rater reliability.
A
Inter-rater reliability is the extent to which the observations and decisions of two researchers are the same. It is highly applicable to observations where using only one researcher may produce subjectivity bias.
To achieve this, a small-scale pilot study may be run prior to the study to see if researchers are applying behavioural categories in the same way.
The results of each researcher is correlate DNA dig they have a correlation of >+.80 then they are said to have inter rested reliability.
10
Q
Describe the ways in which reliability can be improved.
A
- On questionnaires that have low correlations, ambiguous questions which may be interpreted differently by separate participants will need rewording. For example, open questions should we replaced by closed questions with fixed answers.
- For interviews, the same researcher should be used each time. If this is not possible, then all interviewers should be trained so that one does not ask more leading questions than the other. Alternatively, more closed questions could be used as this reduces ‘free-flowing’ answers.
- For laboratory experiments, participants should be tested under the same conditions each time as being extremely tired, for example, may lower performance in a condition compared to being alert in another condition. Alternatively, counter balancing can be used to assess for any order effects that may reduce reliability. If found, the experiment would need redesigning to reduce these effects.
- In observations, all variables must be clearly operationalised, e.g. Pushing rather than aggression. Catergories must be self-evident, measurable and not overlap, e.g. Hugging and cuddling.
11
Q
What is the split-half method?
A
This involves comparing answers from the first half of a questionnaire to the second half to look for a positive correlation.
12
Q
What is validity?
A
The extent to which an observed effect is genuine, has measured what it set out to measure and can be generalised beyond the situation in which it was found.
13
Q
Define internal validity.
A
The extent to which findings are due to the manipulation of the independent variable or a result of another confounding variable, such a de,and characteristics.
14
Q
Define external validity.
A
The extent to which findings of an investigation can be generalised to other settings, peoples or eras.
15
Q
Define ecological validity.
A
The extent to which findings can be applied to ‘everyday’ situations. Many aspects must be analysed to decide whether settings can be generalised beyond the research setting.
16
Q
Define temporal validity.
A
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical eras. It is a form of external validity. Examples of psychology that have low temporal validity include findings from Asch and Milgram or Freud’s concept of penis envy.
17
Q
Define face validity.
A
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure. For example, does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety. It can be measured by simply observing a measuring instrument or asking the opinion of an expert to check it.
18
Q
Define concurrent validity.
A
The extent to inch a psychological measure relates to an existing psychological measure. E.g. A new intelligence test compared to a Stanford-Binet test.
19
Q
List the ways of improving validity.
A
- In an experiment, a control group can be used to see whether changes in the DV were due to the independent variable.
- To reduce demand characteristics/participant reactivity, standardised procedures, double blind and single blind methods may be used.
- In questionnaires, lie scales or promises that answers will be keep anonymous will reduce social desirability bias.
- In observations covertness is used to ensure participant behaviour is natural. Behavioural categories must be well operationalised to ensure that only the behaviour described is being marked.
- in qualitative research such a case studies and interviews, triangulation is used to reduce interpretive validity. This involves collecting data though many research methods such as interviews, questionnaires and observations.
- In general to increase validity, participants should made less aware they are under investigation, should be placed in more natural settings, representative samples should be used, extraneous variables should be controlled for and research could be repeated throughout different times of the day.
20
Q
What is nominal data?
A
Data that is represented in the form of categorical data. It is sometimes called categorical data. It is discrete in that one item can only appear in one of the categories.
21
Q
What is ordinal data?
A
Ordinal data is data that is ordered in some way for example a scale of loving psychology where 1 is hate and 10 is love. Original data does not have equal intervals between each unit. It also lacks precision as it is based on subjective opinion rather than objective measures. E.g. IQ tests are derived from a view of what constitutes intelligence rather than any universal measure. They measure psychological constructs. Ordinal data is also called unsafe data and because of this I is converted into ranks before being used in statistical testing.
22
Q
What is interval data?
A
Interval data is data based on numerical scales that include units or equal, precisely defined size. For example, a stopwatch is a public scale of measurement that produces data on accepted units of measurement. It is the most precise and sophisticated form of data in psychology and is a necessary criterion for the use of parametric tests. It is better than ordinal data because more detail is preserved (and ordinal is ‘better’ than nominal level).
23
Q
What are the sub sections of a journal?
A
- Title.
- Authors.
- Introduction.
- Abstract.
- Methods.
- Results.
- Discussion.
- Referencing.
- Appendix.
24
Q
Describe the abstract of a scientific report.
A
A section describing the key details of the report in a short summary. It includes all the major elements; the aims, the hypothesis, the methods, the results and he conclusions.
It allows researchers to read a range of of abstracts to decide which are important enough for further investigation.
25
Describe the Introduction section of a scientific investigation.
A literature review which reflects on past research (relevant theories, concepts and theories) into the researchers chosen topic and introduces the aims and hypotheses of the investigation. It should follow follow a logical progression, beginning with concepts and developing into aims and hypotheses.
It shows a reader why and how you will tackle the investigation and what is original about your research.
26
Describe he methods section of a scientific investigation.
A detailed description of what the researcher(s) did, including:
- design - this is clearly described with reasons of justification.
- Sample - including the sampling method and target population. This includes information on the participants such as how many there were and demographic information.
- Apparatus/materials - this provides detail of any instruments or relevant material used.
- Procedure - A recipe style list of that happened in the investigation, beginning to end. This includes a verbatim record of everything that was said to the participants, such as in the briefing, standardised instructions and debriefing.
- Ethics - an explanation stating how these were addressed in the study.
This section allows a reader to decided whether they wish to skip sections and return later. It also allows them to draw enough detail to replicate he study if they wish.
27
Describe what the results section of a scientific report is like.
A description of what the researcher(s) found, including inferential (choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, level of significance and the final outcome) and descriptive statistics (tables, graphs,charts, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion etc). It summarises the key findings from the study. If the researcher used qualitative methods, there is likely to be analysis of themes and categories I'm this section too.
This shows the reader that you have evidence to support your findings.
28
Describe what the discussion section of a scientific report is like.
A consideration of what the results of a research study tell us in terms of psychological theory. It involves many sections such as:
- A verbal summary of results and findings in the context of the information provided in the introduction.
- A discussion of the limitations of the study (e.g. methodological issues) and how these might be addressed in further studies.
- A consideration of wider implications of the research such as application to real life or contribution to existing psychological knowledge.
This shows a reader how your results do or do not support your research question.
29
Describe what the reference section of a scientific investigation is like.
A list of sources that are referred to or quoted in the article, e.g. journal articles, books or websites, and their full details. This references must include full detail including the authors, date, title of book (in italics), place of publication, publisher and page numbers.
This provides the reader with the information needed to find the referenced cited if they wish.
30
Describe what the appendix section of a journal article is like.
A summary of the whole research which contains raw data, arguments for your experiment and other other relevant information that did not belong in the other sections.
This section allows the reader to get the results of the investigation/experiment without having to read the whole of the results section. It also helps them to understand what they can and can't conclude exactly.
31
What are the features of a science?
- Evidence based.
- Empirical methods.
- Reliability.
- Falsifiability.
- Replicability.
- Validity.
- Objectivity/Subjectivity.
- Induction.
- Deduction.
- Paradigms.
- Paradigm shift.
- Operationalised variables.
- Hypothesis testing.
- Control (Cause and effect).
- Theory construction.
- Sampling.
32
What are paradigms/paradigms shifts?
A paradigm is an accepted set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline. Kuhn (1962) argues that unlike physics, which has the standard model of the universe at its core, psychology has too many conflict approaches to be classed as a science. He sees it as a pre-science as there is no central number of principals at its core.
A paradigm shift occurs when a handful of researchers begin to question the accepted paradigm and slowly but with increasing pace, more research hers join is critique. When there is too much contradictory evidence to disagree, researchers accept this new view and a shift has occurred, e.g. The shift from the Newtonian theory to einsteinian theory. A Paradigm shift is the result of a scientific revolution; a scientific change in the dominant, unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
33
What is theory construction?
A theory is a set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours. They are simple and economical principles that reflect reality. Eh explain regularities in behaviour. Theory construction happens inductively or hypothetico-deductively. Evidence is gathered through direct observation and experiments are used to provide evidence to prove or contradict this theory.
34
What is hypothesis testing?
Clear and precise predictions that can be scientifically tested should be able to be made on the basis of a theory. This is know as hypothesis testing. A theory should generate many hypotheses. Systematic and objective measures will be used to test a hypothesis to see if it will be supported (which strengthens the hypothesis) or refuted (which weakens the hypothesis and may mean it needs revising).
35
What is falsifiability?
The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue. Popper (1934) argued that all scientific theory should hold itself up for hypothesis testing and he possibility of being proven wrong. He argued that theories that had been repeatedly proven right were simply ones that had not been proven wrong and that therefore they may not be true. Popper believed that in good science, hypotheses are constantly challenged but in pseudosciences, hypotheses had falsifiability. Hypotheses that survive most attempts to falsify them are the strongest. Scientists never say 'prove' due to the issue of falsifiability but rather suggest. Falsifiability also explains why an alternative hypotheses is accompanied a null hypothesis.
36
What is Replicability?
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be replicated by other researchers. To be trusted, a scientific theory must have replicability across many different contexts and circumstances. Replicability is important in determining the reliability of methods and findings but also the validity as it shows the extent to which generalisation can be applied. For replication to happen, scientists must report their investigations in as much detail as possible in order to allow other researchers to verify their methods and findings.
37
What is objectivity and the empirical method?
Objectivity is the minimisation of all personal bias in research so as to not distort or influence the research process. It involves researcher a keeping a 'critical distance' during research. Methods associated with the highest levels of levels of control (e.g. lab experiments) are believed to have the highest objectivity.
The empirical method is the use of direct observation and experience to gather evidence on which researchers use to build scientific approaches. For example, the experimental and observational methods. A theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified. Locke argued all knowledge is determined by experience and sensory perception.
38
What is induction/deduction?
Induction involves studying in detail topics of interest in order to identify any trends in the observed data and then suggesting a possible explanation for this pattern in the form of a theory.
Deduction involves creating one or more hypotheses and using research to test his hypothesis. This research allows the researcher to accept or reject their hypothesis and carry out further research into his topic.
39
Define the experimental method.
Involves the manipulation and the independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural and quasi.
40
Define aims.
A general but focused state to of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study. It is derived from previous research or theories.
41
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. It is made at the outset of the study. Directional hypotheses states the direction of the difference or relationship. No -directional hypotheses states there will be a difference but not the direction of this difference.
42
What are variables?
Any 'thing' that can vary or change within an experiment. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in on thing result in changes to another.
43
What is the independent variable?
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or ch ages naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured.
44
What is the dependent variable?
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV.
45
What is operationalisation?
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
46
What are extraneous variables?
Any variable other than the independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent variable if not controlled. They are essentially nuisance variables that do not change systematically with the IV but might muddy the experimental method and make it harder to detect a result.
47
What are confounding variables?
Any variable, other than the IV, that may have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of changes to the DV. Confounding variables vary systematically with the IV.
48
What are demand characteristics?
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This mane lead to the participant ch ageing their behaviour within the research situation.
49
What are investigator effects?
Any effect of the investigator's behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process.
50
What is randomisation?
The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias or extraneous variables when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
51
What is standardisation?
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study. This includes standardised instructions read to all participants. This is for many reasons such as to reduce extraneous variables.
52
Define experimental design.
The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental methods.
53
What is an independent measures design?
Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition. They experience two separate levels of the independent variable.
54
What is a repeated measures design?
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
55
What is a matched pairs design?
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B.
56
Evaluate independent measures design.
✅ - No order effects.
✅ - Participants less likely to guess the aims.
✅ - Less time since participants can be tested at the same time.
❌ - Individual differences as participants in each condition are not the same. Random allocation is needed to combat this.
❌ - Less economical than repeated measures.
57
Evaluate the repeated measures design.
✅ - Individual differences are controlled for.
✅ - Fewer participants are needed means it is more economical.
❌ - Order effects can lead to confounding variables.
❌ - Demand characteristics.
❌ - Time consuming as gaps may be needed between conditions or new situations may need setting up.
58
Evaluate a matched pairs design.
✅ - Reduced order effects since participants only take part in one condition.
✅ - This means that demand characteristics are also controlled for.
✅ - Individual differences are better controlled for.
❌ - Individual differences can never be 100% controlled for.
❌ - Less economical as a pre-test may be required to match the participants. This may also be time consuming. More participants are also needed.
59
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that takes places in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and encores the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.
60
Evaluate laboratory experiments.
✅ - Higher control over extraneous variables leading to a clear cause and effect between the independent variable and the dependent variable which turn leads to high validity.
✅ - Replication is more possible due to the high levels of control. This control means no new extraneous variables are introduced when repeating the study and the findings can be checked for reliability.
❌ - Lack generalisability do to the use of artificial tasks or unfamiliar contexts. This can lead to low external validity.
❌ - Demand characteristics are likely as participants are aware/know they are being tested.
❌ - Lack mundane realism since the artificial tasks used do not represent everyday life.
61
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
62
Evaluate field experiments.
✅ - Higher ecological validity and mundane realism.
✅ - Higher external validity as participants less aware they are being studied.
❌ - Lack of control results in unclear cause and effect and harder replication.
❌ - Ethical issues of consent and privacy as participants may be unaware that they are being studied.
63
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the change in IV is not bought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV. They can happen in a controlled or natural setting.
64
Evaluate natural experiments.
✅ - Allow for the study of impractical or unethical independent variables or situations.
✅ - High external validity as they study real-life issues and problems.
❌ - Low opportunities to study such variables.
❌ - Low generalisability as opportunities are often limited and unique.
❌ - Low reliability for previously stated reasons.
❌ - Random allocation to experimental conditions may be hard. This means that the researcher is less sure of whether the IV affected the DV or whether it was a confounding variable.
65
What is a quasi-experiment?
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the 'variables' simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.
66
Evaluate quasi-experiments.
✅ - Often carried out in laboratories and so share the same strengths.
✅ - Like natural experiments they save a researcher having to create unethical IVs or situations.
❌ - Again like natural experiments, participants cannot be allocated to conditions and so confounding variables may arise.
67
Outline and evaluate random samples.
A random sample is a sophisticated sample in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. To complete, a list of all names are made and all names are assigned a number followed by the use of a lottery method.
✅ - Free from researcher bias. They researcher cannot chose people who they may think will support their hypothesis.
❌ - Difficult and time consuming and could still produce a biased sample.
❌ - Participants may refuse to take part and you may end up with something like a volunteer sample.
68
Outline and evaluate systematic sampling.
A sample in which every nth person of the target population is selected. E.g. every 5th person on a school register. To do this a sampling frame is produced which is list of people in an organised way (e.g. Alphabetical order). A sampling system is nominated or randomly determined and the researcher works through the sampling frame until the sampling system is complete.
✅ - Avoids researcher bias. The researcher has no control over who is chosen once the system has been created.
✅ - Usually fairly representative. It would be unlucky to get a biased sample, e.g. all men/males, through the use of this method.
❌ - Participants may refuse to take part and you may end up with something like a volunteer sample.
69
Outline and evaluate a stratified sample.
A stratified sample is a sophisticated form if sampling in which the composition of the sample represents/reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within the target population. To carry this out a stratified sample out the researcher must identify the different Starr that make up a population. Then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out. Finally, the participants that make up each stratum are selected through random sampling.
✅ - Avoids researcher. The researcher has no control once the strata are randomly selected.
✅ - Produces a representative sample because it accurately represents the composition of the population. Allows for GENERALISATION.
❌ - Complete representation is impossible because the strata cannot represent all the ways in which people are different.
❌ - Participants may refuse to take part and you may end up with something like a volunteer sample.
70
Outline and evaluate opportunity sampling.
A researcher selects anyone that is willing and available. To do his the researcher simply takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of the study, for example in the street (as in the case of market research).
✅ - Convenient. It saves a researcher time and money and is much less costly than,say, random sampling.
❌ - Unrepresentative of target population as it is drawn from a very specific area. Lacks GENERALISATION. They are usually psychology students.
❌ - The researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and, for instance, they may avoid people they do not like the look of.
❌ - Participants may refuse to take part and you may end up with something like a volunteer sample.
71
Outline and evaluate a volunteer sample.
A volunteer sample involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample, hence, it is also referred to as self-selection. To select a volunteer sample to do this a researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a common room notice board. Alternatively willing participants may simply raise their hand when a researcher asks.
✅ - Requires minimal effort and so is easy and less time consuming than other forms of sampling.
❌ - Volunteer bias. Asking for volunteers may attract a certain 'profile' of person, that is, one who is helpful, keen and curious (which might then affect how far findings can be generalised).
72
What are ethical issues?
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
73
What are the ethical issues?
- Informed consent - includes all aims and what data will be used for etc more than just getting a yes or no as participants need this information to make the decision.
- Right to withdraw.
- Deception.
- Protection from psychological/physical harm - not making them feel anything or putting them in danger that they wouldn't (be) in their daily lives.
- Privacy and confidentiality.
74
What is the British Psychological Society (BPS) code of conduct?
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. It is built around four major principles; respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
75
How does the British Psychological Society (BPS) deal with ethical issues?
An ethics committee in a research institution use a cost-benefit approach to determine whether particular research proposals are ethically acceptable.
Consent - a participant is issued a letter containing all the relvlenat information about the investigation. If they sign it, informed consent is gained. If someone is under 16, a parent/carer must sign the form.
Deception and protection from psychological and physical harm - debriefs and the right the withdraw are used/given. The participant is reassured their behaviour was normal and is provided with counselling if needed. In debriefing participants are reassured that their data will be protected throughout the whole process.
Confidentiality - Anonymity is used or private data is kept protected and secret. E.g. When researchers use initials in case studies such as HM.
76
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc, work and to allow the researcher to make changes of modifications if necessary. Identifying possible problems will save money and time in the long run. In observations coding is checked and may result in researchers needing training.
77
What is the single-blind procedure?
A method used to control for the confounding effects of demand characteristics that involves keeping information, such as aims of the study or which condition participants are in or the existence of any other conditions, from the participants.
78
What is the double-blind procedure?
A method used to reduce the confounding variable of demand characteristics or researcher bias in which neither the researcher nor participants are aware of which condition they are in or the aims of the study. A third party will conduct the study without knowing its purpose. They are important in drug trials with the use of placebos.
79
What is control?
The control of variables or a baseline to which to compare experimental results to to which allows a researcher to conclude if results are down to the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
80
Outline and evaluate a naturalistic observation?
Watching or recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur. All aspects of the environment are free to vary.
✅ - High external validity.
❌ - Lack of control leads to low validity and replication - EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES.
81
Outline and evaluate a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. One where some variables are managed. There is some control of extraneous variables.
✅ - Less extraneous variables.
❌ - Low external validity.
82
Outline and evaluate a covert observation?
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
✅ - High validity due to reduced participant reactivity.
❌ - Ethics.
83
Outline and evaluate a overt observation?
Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
✅ - Reduced ethical issues.
❌ - Demand characteristics.
84
Outline and evaluate participant observations.
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording. Can produce first-hand accounts.
✅ - Researcher can experiment the situation as participants do, giving them an enhanced insight into the lives of people being studied. Increases validity.
❌ - The researcher can identify too strongly with the participants and lose objectivity.
85
Outline and evaluate non-participant observations?
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
✅ - Maintain objective psychological distance.
❌ - May lose insight into the people being study as they are too far removed from the situation.
86
What is the difference between structured and unstructured observations?
Unstructured interviews allow a researcher to write in rich detail every that occurs in the observation. It is only suitable for observations using a sample amount of participants.
Structured interviews are used for large groups of participants where it is impossible to write down everything you see. Behavioural checklists and sampling methods are used.
87
Evaluate structured and unstructured observations.
Structure interviews are systematic, easy and produce quantitative data. This makes analysis easier.
Unstructured interview produce qualitative data that is rich and has depth. It is harder to analyse this data. They do, however, have a greater risk of observer bias as objective behavioural categories are not used. A researcher may only record information that catches their eye and is not the important or useful information.
88
Outline and evaluate behavioural categories.
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and
✅ - Objective and structured.
❌ - Must be clear and operationalised.
❌ - Must not overlap.
❌ - All possible forms of target behaviours included. No dustbin categories.
89
Outline and evaluate observational sampling methods.
Event sampling - a target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records his event every time it occurs.
✅ - Useful if behaviours occur infrequently.
❌ - Could be missed easily.
Time sampling - a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say, every 60 seconds.
✅ - Effective in reducing number of recordings at have to be made.
❌ - Some samples may be u representative of the observation as a whole.
❌ - Can miss important events.
90
What is a self-report technique?
Any method (a list of pre-set questions) in which a person is asked to state or explain their own their, opinions and behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.
Open questions - no number of fixed answers.
Closed questions - offer a fixed number of responses.
91
Evaluate questionnaires.
✅ - Cost- effective because you can send a lot out in one go.
✅ - Lack of effort. Can be carried out without researcher.
✅ - Closed questions produce quantitative data which lends itself to analysis which means groups of people can be compared.
❌- Social desirability bias - demand characteristics - low validity.
❌ - Response bias - low validity - acquiescence bias.
92
What is an interview?
A 'live' encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees
93
What types of interview are there?
A structured interview follows a set order and number of question. It is like a questionnaire conducted face-to-face in real time.
An unstructured interview is like a conversation. There are no pre-determined questions and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate in their answers.
A semi-structured interview uses a pre-determined set of questions but these are flexible and the interviewer can asks follow up questions if they wish.
94
Evaluate interviews.
✅ - Structured interviews reduce differences between interviews and they are easy to replicate. They also produce quantitative data that is easier to analyse.
❌ - However interviewers can deviate from the questions.
✅ - The follow up aspect of unstructured interviews allows interviewers to get more insightful answers. ❌ - However the analysis of data is not easy. There is also the possibility of social desirability bias.
95
What are open questions?
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish.
96
What are closed questions?
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses and determined by the question setter.
97
What is a likert scale?
When a participant rates their agreement with a statement using a scale.
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What is a rating scale.
When a participant uses a scale to rate the strength of their feelings about a statement.
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What is a fixed choice question?
When a participant chooses from a list of fixed questions which answers apply to him/her.
100
How to design interviews and write good questions.
- Interview schedule.
- Standardised instructions (to reduce interviewer bias).
- Interviewer takes notes or interview is recorded and analysed later.
- One to one or group interview.
- A one to one interview should be carried out in a quiet and private room.
- Neutral questions used to build rapport.
- Participants reminded their answers will be treated with the strictest confidence.
- Questions must have clarity.
- No use of jargon.
- No emotive language or leading questions.
- No double-barrelled questions or double negatives.
101
What is a correlation.
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an a association between two variables called co-variables.
102
Evaluate correlations.
✅ - Provide precise and quantifiable data of how two variables are related.
✅ - Used a a starting point for further research.
✅ - Quick and economical. No need for controlled environments or manipulations.
✅ - Secondary data can be used.
❌ - No cause and effect. No direction.
❌ - Third variable problem, intervening variables.
❌ - Findings misinterpreted especially in the media- causal facts.
103
What is the difference between quantitative and qualification data?
Quantitative data is data that is expressed in numerical form.
Qualitative data is expressed in words and non-numerical forms (although it can be converted into numbers for the purpose of analysis).
104
Evaluate quantitative and qualitative data.
✅ - Qualitative data gives more insight - MORE EXTERNAL VALIDITY.
❌ - Hard to analyse.
❌ - Conclusions open to researcher bias.
✅ - Quantitative data can be analysed and comparisons between groups can be drawn.
✅ - More objective and less open to bias.
❌ - Narrower in scope than qualitative data and may fail to represent real-life.
105
What are the differences between primary and secondary data?
Primary data is data that has been collected first hand by the researcher for the research project.
Secondary data is data that has already been collected by somebody else and pre-dates the current research.
106
Evaluate primary and secondary data.
✅ - Primary data fits the job.
❌ - Research requires lot of time and effort to plan.
✅ - Minimal effort and money to access.
❌ - Cannot be sure of the quality of secondary data.
107
Describe the peer review process.
This is the assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that my research intended for publication is of high quality. There are 3 main aims:
1) To allocate research funding.
2) To validate the quality and relevance of research.
3) To suggest amendments or improvements.
108
Evaluate the peer review process.
✅ - Establishes e validity of research.
❌ - Anonymity can lead to competition.
❌ - Publication bias and file drawer problem do not produce a realistic representation of psychology and ignore other significant research.
❌ - Burying ground-breaking research which goes against current theory. This slows down the rate of change within a particular scientific discipline or in psychology.
